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EDITED  BT 

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FARM  BOILDINGS 


BY 

W.   A.   FOSTER,  B.Sci.  in  Edu.,  B.Arch. 

Farm  Building  Specialist,  Agricultural  Engineering  Section, 

Iowa   Agricultural   Experiment  Station,   Member 

American  Society  of  Agricultural  Engineers 

AND 

DEANE  G.  CARTER,  B.S.  in  A.E. 

Formerly  Associate  Professor  in  Charge,  Agricultural  Engineering 

Department,  North  Carolina  State  College  of  Agriculture 

and  Engineering,  Associate  Member  American 

Society   of  Agricultural    Engineers 


NEW  YORK 

JOHN    WILEY    &    SONS,   Inc. 

London:  CHAPMAN  &  HALL,  Limited 
1922 


c^  ^  o 


Y  (o 


Copyright,  1922,  by 
W.  A.  FOSTER  and  DEANE  G.  CARTER 
MAW  UI»ltA»lY.A«RlCin-TUf^C  OW-¥. 


PRESS  OF 
BRAUNWORTH   &  CO- 
BOOK   MANUFACTURERS 
BROOKLYN,   N.   Y. 


PREFACE 


This  book  treats  of  the  location,  planning,  construction 
and  repair  of  farm  buildings.  The  material  presented^  was 
collected  from  various  sources  by  the  authors;  from  their 
experience  as  farmers,  experiment  station  workers  and  teachers. 
An  effort  has  been  made  to  group  and  present  this  material 
in  an  order  which  would  make  it  practicable  as  a  text  book  for 
college  students,  a  reference  for  secondary  schools  and  a  source 
of  information  for  the  farmer. 

The  farm  building  problems  have  received  more  attention 
during  the  past  decade  than  during  the  previous  century. 
New  types  of  buildings  have  been  developed,  new  materials 
have  come  into  general  use  and  new  constructions' have  replaced 
the  old.  Furthermore,  the  change  of  agricultural  methods  has 
affected  farm  building  problems.  For  instance,  expensive 
farm  machinery  must  be  protected  from  weather  and  live 
stock  requires  shelter  by  buildings  formerly  offered  by  timber. 

An  effort  was  made  to  pick  out  the  practical  and  simple  and 
present  it  in  such  a  manner  so  it  could  be  utilized  by  the 
student  or  farmer  as  a  source  of  information  and  guide  in 
building.  While  a  course  of  study  is  not  outHned,  the  teacher 
of  farm  building  construction  will  find  many  problems  which 
may  be  selected  to  fit  any  course. 

The  authors  wish  to  express  their  appreciation  to  the  many 
commercial  organizations  and  the  Iowa  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station  which  kindly  allowed  the  use  of  illustrations;  to 
Professor  F.  W.  Ives,  of  Ohio  State  University,  for  reading  the 
text  and  his  constructive  criticisms;  to  Professor  Thomas  E. 
French,  Ohio  State  University,  for  his  helpful  suggestions,  and 
to  the  editor  for  his   assistance.     It  is  hoped  that  any  errors 


503227 


iv  PREFACE 

which  may  occur  will   be  brought  to  the  attention  of  the 
authors  and  that  they  receive  charitable  consideration. 

The  authors  will  be  glad  to  cooperate  with  teachers  using 
the  book  as  a  text  and  to  suggest  courses  of  study. 

W.  A.  Foster, 
Deane  G.  Carter. 
Ames,  Iowa, 

November  14,  1921. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 


The  authors  wish  to  express  their  appreciation  to  the 
following  firms  who  cooperated  in  furnishing  illustrative 
material : 

American  Radiator  Company,  Chicago,  Illinois. 

Adel  Clay  Products  Company,  Adel,  Iowa. 

Delco-Light  Company,  Dayton,  Ohio. 

James  Manufacturing  Company,  Ft.  Atkinson,  Wisconsin. 

Kewanee  Private  Utilities  Company,  Kewanee,  Illinois. 

King  Ventilating  Company,  Owatonna,  Minnesota. 

Milwaukee  Air  Power  Pump  Company,  Milwaukee,  Wis- 
consin. 

Moline  Heat  Company,  Moline,  Illinois. 

Portland  Cement  Association,  Chicago,  Illinois. 

Sanitary  Manufacturing  Company,  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylva- 
nia. 

Somerville  Stove  Works,  Somerville,  New  Jersey. 

The  Colt  Company,  New  York  City. 

The  Isko  Company,  Chicago,  Illinois. 

Western  Silo  Company,  Des  Moines,  Iowa. 

WiUiams  Heater  Company,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

Wood  Tire  Silo  Company,  Sheboygan,  Wisconsin. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I 
Introduction 

PAGE 

Capital  invested  in  farm  buildings — Development  of  farm  buildings  in 
past  decade — Losses  due  to  poor  buildings — Professional  farm 
building  service — Purpose  and  plan  of  text 1 


CHAPTER  II 

The  Dairy  Barn 

Location  of  dairy  barn — Ceiling  height — Width — Length — Facing  the 
stock — Stalls — Manger — Curb — Gutter — Feed  and  Utter  alleys — 
Box  stalls — Bull  pen — Calf  pen — Drainage — Lighting — Milk 
room — Feeding  conveniences — Dairy  stable  in  general  barn 6 


CHAPTER  III 

The  Horse  Barn 

Essentials  of  the  horse  barn — Location — Width — Ceiling  height — 
Alleys — Standing  stalls — Box  stalls — Stall  construction — Floors 
— Harness  room — Feed  and  Hay  storage 18 

CHAPTER  IV 

Beef  Cattle  and  Sheep  Barns 

Location  of  beef  cattle  barn — Types — Essentials — Size — Feed  stor- 
age— Shelters — Handhng  manure — Sanitary  requirements — 
Classes  of  feeding  barns  for  breeding  stock — Sheep  barns — Essen- 
tials— Space  requirements — Types — Equipment  for  sheep  raising.     25 

vii 


vm  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  V 

General  Purpose  Barns 

Essentials — Legal  requirements — Characteristics  of  each  section — 
Separation  of  stock — ^Width — Small  bams — Remodeling 35 

CHAPTER  VI 

Barn  Equipment 

Importance  of  modern  equipment — Stanchions — Stall  partitions — 
Stalls — Mangers — Pen  and  box  stalls — Watering  cups — Litter 
and  feed  carriers — Ventilators — Horse-barn  equipment — Feeding- 
barn  equipment 40 

CHAPTER  VII 

Essentials  of  Barns 

Four  essentials — Appearance — Sanitation — Convenience — Economy  of 
construction — Undesirable  uses  of  barns — Doors — Windows — 
Stairs — Hay  chutes 47 

CHAPTER  VIII 

Classification  of  Barns 

As  to  use — ^As  to  shape — Round  barns — Roof  shapes — Shed — Gable — 
Gambrel — Gothic — Monitor — Materials  of  construction — Stand- 
ard barns 57 

CHAPTER  IX 

Barn  Construction 

Factors  affecting  construction — Definitions — Preliminary  work — 
Foundations — Floors — Masonry  walls — Sills — Plates — Studding 
— Columns — Girders — Joists — Rafters  — Bracing  —  Sheathing — 
Siding — Ceiling — Loft  floors 64 

CHAPTER  X 

Barn  Framing 

Timber  frame — Plank  frame — Gable  roof  framing — Gambrel  roof — 
Layout  of  roof — Types  of  gambrel  roof  framing — Braced  rafter 
frame — Plank  truss  frame — Wide  barn  framing — Gothic  roof 
framing — Round  barn  framing — Framing  details 74 


CONTENTS  ix 

CHAPTER  XI 

Barn  Ventilation 

PAGE 

Definition — Purpose — Composition  of  pure  air — Breathed  air — 
Amount  of  air  breathed — Standard  of  purity — ^Amount  of  air 
required — Rate  of  flow — Motive  powers — Systems  of  ventilation — 
Rutherford  system — King  system— Area  and  size  of  flues — Intake 
flues — Spacing  of  flues — Construction  of  flues — Outtakes — 
Spacing  of  outtakes — Size — Construction — Cupolas — Tempera- 
ture control — Failure  to  ventilate — Ventilation  tests — Problems 
of  ventilation 90 


CHAPTER  XII 

Hog  Houses 

Essentials  of  good  hog  houses — Sanitation — Planning — Construction 
— General  problems — Feed  storage — ^Artificial  heat — Outside  run- 
ways— Feeding  and  watering — Hog  house  equipment — Movable 
hog  houses — ^Advantages — Disadvantages — Types — Gable  roof 
house — Combination  roof  house — A-shape  house — Construction — 
Community  hog  house — Durability — Compact  housing — Sanitary 
features — Greater  production  possible — Appearance — Construc- 
tion— Location — Width — Length — Pens — Doors  and  gates — 
Troughs — Panels — Fenders — Drains — Nesting  place — Hog  house 
Construction  —  Foundation  —  Floors  —  Walls  —  Roof  framing  — 
Types  of  community  houses — Shed  roof — Combination  roof — 
Monitor  roof — Gambrel  roof — Half  monitor  roof — Gable  roof 
house 106 


CHAPTER  XIII 

Hog  House  Sanitation 

Sanitary  requirements — Individual  hog  house — Community  hog  house 
— North  and  south  houses — East  and  west  houses — Principles 
of  window  location — Sunlight  table — Locating  windows  on  plan — 
Size  and  kind  of  windows — Ventilation — Two  common  systems — 
Design  of  systems — Other  items  of  sanitation 124 


X  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XIV 

Poultry  Houses 

PAGE 

Location — Size — Construction — Foundation — Floors — Walls — Roof 
— Windows  —  Doors  —  Divisions  —  Ventilation  —  Poultry  house 
equipment — Types  of  poultry  houses — Colony  houses — Commun- 
ity houses — Shed  roof  house — Gable  roof  house — Combination 
roof  house — Half  monitor  roof  house 135 

CHAPTER  XV 

Grain  Storage  Buildings 

Types  of  grain  storage — Location — Width — Length — Height — Capac- 
ity— Shape — Construction — Foundations — Floors — Sloping  floors 
— Crib  walls — Overhead  bins — Ties  and  braces — Roof  construc- 
tion— Hollow-tile  construction — Other  crib  materials — Special 
features — Rat-proofing — Shelling  trench — Gravity  spouts — Ele- 
vating machinery — Handling  the  grain — ^Ventilators 143 

CHAPTER  XVI 

Silos 

Essentials — Strong  wall — Smooth  wall — Tight  wall — Desirable  features 
— Durabihty — Low  repair  cost — Good  location — Wind  resist- 
ance— Frost  resistance — SimpHcity  of  construction — Appearance 
— Cost — Size  and  capacity — Amounts  fed — Rate  of  feeding — 
Capacity — Weight  at  different  heights — Silo  construction — 
Foundation — Walls — Doors — Chute — Roof — Reinforcement — 
Types  of  silos — Wood  stave  silo — Panel  silo — Triple  wall  silo — 
Wood  hoop  silo — Creosote  stave  silo — Masonry  silos — Brick  silos 
— Hollow  tile  silos — Concrete  block  silos — Pit  silos — Tank  on 
silo 156 

CHAPTER  XVII 

Implement  and  Machine  Shelters 

Essentials  of  machine  shelters — Protection — Convenience — Space — 
Location — Size — Arrangement — Types — Construction — Garage — 
Size — Oil  and  Fuels — Appearance — Fireproof  construction — Light 
and  cleanhness — Construction — Tractor  shelters — Farm  shop — 
Equipment — Size — Plan  —  Construction  —  Combination  garage 
building ^ 172 


CONTENTS  Xi 

CHAPTER  XVIII 
Ice  Houses 

PAGE 

Types  of  ice  houses — Essentials  of  ice  storage — Insulation — Drainage 
— Ventilation — Space  requirements — Amount  of  ice  required — 
Ice-house  construction — Ice  supply 183 

CHAPTER  XIX 

Minor  Buildings 

Small  structures — Construction — Smoke  house — Pump  house — Milk 
house — Spring  house — Scale  house — Seed  house — Shelters — Util- 
ity house — Combination  buildings — Vegetable  storage 189 

CHAPTER  XX 

HoME-BuiLT  Farm  Equipment 

Cattle  feed  bimks — Feeding  racks — Mangers — Feeding  floors — 
Wallcws — Self  feeders — Tanks — Hog  waterer — Hog  breeding 
crate— Cattle  breeding  crate — Corner  posts — Manure  pit — Scale 
pen — vShipping  crate — Cattle  stocks — Ringing  crate — Dipping 
vat 194 

CHAPTER  XXI 

Development  of  the  Farm  House 

Man's  needs — Primitive  house — Influences — Types — Ideal  farm  house.  207 

CHAPTER  XXII 

Planning  the  Farm  House 

Importance  of  planning  correctly — Parts  of  the  farm  house — Part  for 
preparation  and  serving  the  food — Kitchen — Dining  room — Pantry 
— Fruit  and  vegetable  room — Part  for  recreation — Living  room — 
Living  porch — Music  room  or  library — Part  for  administration — 
Office — Part  for  sanitation — Bathroom — Toilet — Wash  room — 
Laundry — Part  for  sleep  and  rest — Bedrooms — Dormitory — 
Sleeping  porch — Part  for  service — Stairs — Halls — Closets — Base- 
ment— Grouping  of  parts — Suggestions  in  planning 211 


xii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XXIII 
Farm  House  Construction 

PAGE 

Types  of  construction — Foundation  and  footings — Balloon  frame — 
Sills — Joists — Girders — Bridging — Studding — Method  of  raising 
— Sheathing — Water  table — Siding — Lath  and  plaster — Roof 
construction — Roof  sheathing — Flooring — Interior  finish — Mill- 
work — Door  frames — Window  frames — Stairs — Cornice — Mold- 
ings— Other  terms — Wood  finishes 221 

CHAPTER  XXIV 

The  Tenant  House 

Importance  of — Location — Size — Arrangement — Kitchen — Dining 
room — Bedrooms — Bathroom — Porches — Basement — Utilities — 
Econom,y  of  construction — Bunk  rooms — Rooms  in  main  house. .  236 

CHAPTER  XXV 

Farm  Home  Equipment 

Conveniences — Heating — Hot-air  furnace — Steam  heating — Radi- 
ators— Piping  systems — Hot-water  heating — Water  supply — 
Amount  of  water  required — Sources  of  water  supply — Methods  of 
pumping — Water-supply  systems — Gravity — Attic  tank — Storage 
cistern  —  Outside  tank  —  Pressure  —  Hydro-pneumatic  —  Pneu- 
matic— Plumbing  fixtures — Sewage  disposal — Septic  tank  action 
— Types  of  septic  tanks — Single  chamber — Double  chamber — 
Size  and  construction — Care  of  tank — Farm  lighting — Blaugas — 
Acetylene — Electric  lighting — Parts  of  small  plant — Generator — 
Switchboard — Battery — Current  used — General  considerations — 
Mechanical  refrigeration — Kitchen  ventilation 240 

CHAPTER  XXVI 

Farmstead  Planning 

Advantages  of  good  grouping — General  problem  of  arrangement — 
Factors  affecting  location  —  Outside  factors  —  Transportation  — 
Social  factors — Natural  conditions — Water  supply — Contours — 
Nature  of  soil — Protection — Relation  of  buildings  in  the  group — 
Types  of  farmsteads — House — Barns — Hog  house — Grain  storage 
— Machine  shelters — Other  buildings — Planting — Farm  layout.  .  268 


CONTENTS  xiii 

CHAPTER  XXVII 
Wood  as  a  Building  Material 

PAGE 

Importance  of  wood — Advantages  and  disadvantages  of — Classifica- 
tion of  woods — Broad-leaved  and  conifers— Hard  woods  and  soft 
woods — Endogenous  and  exogenous — Sap  wood  and  heartwood — 
Annular  rings — Grain — Soft  woods  or  conifers — White  pine — 
Yellow  pine — Fir — Spruce — Hemlock — Cypress — Cedar — Hard 
woods — Oak — Black  walnut — Ash — Maple — Birch — Poplar — 
Other  woods — Qualities  of  wood — Defects  of  wood — Sawing — 
Seasoning — Lumber  measure — Lumber  grades — Sizes — Doors — 
Windows — Roofing  materials — Shingles — Roll  roofing — Asphalt 
shingles  —  Slate  —  Galvanized  metal  —  Roofing  tile  —  Asbestos 
shingles 278 

CHAPTER  XXVIII 

Cement  and  Concrete 

Definitions — Amount  cement  used — Marketing — Aggregates — Sand — 
Gravel  —  Crushed  rock  —  Cinders  —  Water  —  Proportioning  — 
Standard  proportions — Amount  of  water — Dry  mixture — Medium 
we£  mixture — Wet  mixture — Mixing — Placing-forms — Reinforc- 
ing— Finishing — Cold  weather  concreting — Concrete  construction 
— Mortar — Floors — Pavements  and  walks — Foundations — Fence 
posts — Cement  blocks — Cement  staves — Cement  stucco 29C 

CHAPTER  XXIX 

Brick  and  Hollow  Building  Tile 

Brick  and  hollow  tile — Clays — Molding — Drying  and  burning — Colors 
— Classification  of  brick — Size  and  weight — Quality — Mortar — 
Brick  in  wall — Bonds — Points  in  construction — Hollow  building 
tile — Floor  and  reinforcing  tile — Special  tile — Wall  tile — Tile 
floors — Tile  in  wall — Lintels  for  tile  wall — Closure  tile — Scored 
tile — Silo  tile — Absorption  of  tile — Glazed  tile — Other  uses  of 
curved  tile — Use  of  stone  in  farm  buildings 303 

CHAPTER  XXX 

Mechanics  op  Farm  Buildings 

Definitions — Stress — Strain — Ultimate  strength — Safe  load — Factor 
of  safety — Moment  of  inertia — Section  modulus — Beam — Load- 


xiv  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

ings — Moment  reactions — Shear — ^Bending  moment — Safe  bend- 
ing stresses — Internal  resisting  stress — Design  of  beams — ^Value  of 
maximum  moment — Columns — Roof  trusses 311 


CHAPTER  XXXI 

Building  Codes  and  Fike  Prevention 

Fire  loss — Building  codes — Fire  protection  on  the  farm — Fire  protec- 
tion— Fire-resisting  construction — Lightning  protection — Light- 
ning rod  equipment — Safe  construction  and  carefulness 316 

CHAPTER  XXXII 

Contract  and  Specifications 

Contract — Specifications — Method  of  writing  specifications — General 
conditions — Bids — Time  of  completion — Rights  reserved — Local 
laws — Payments — Insurance —  Names  —  Delays  —  Guarantee  — 
Similar  or  equal — Drawings — Details — Alterations — Workman- 
ship — Materials — Rejected  materials — Protection — Damage — 
Scaffolding — Temporary  heat — Cleaning  up — Temporary  privy — 
Survey  and  levels — Water — Building  site — Specifications  by  sec- 
tions — Excavation — Foundation — Concrete  floors — Masonry — 
Carpentry — Millwork — Roof — Hardware — Painting  and  Glazing 
— Lath  and  plaster — Wiring — Plumbing — Heating — Suggestions 
—Contracts 320 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 

Cost  Estimating 

Conditions  affecting  cost — Methods  of  estimating — Estimating  by 
cubing — Estimating  by  squaring — Estimating  by  accommodation 
units — Accurate  estimating — Methods — Order  of  estimating — 
Excavation — Masonry — Rough  lumber — Millwork — Plastering — 
Plumbing  —  Hardware  —  Painting  —  Lighting  fixtures  —  Other 
items  —  Overhead  — -Profit  —  Competitive  bids  —  Farm  building 
costs 326 


CONTENTS  XV 

CHAPTER  XXXIV 
Plan  Drawing 

PAGE 

Material  for  drawing — Selection,  use  and  care  of  equipment — Drawing 
paper — Scales — Kinds  of  draivings — Isometric  drawing — Working 
drawings — Method  of  drawing — Dimensions — Lettering — Origi- 
nal work 335 

CHAPTER  XXXV 

Rafter  Framing  and  Cutting 

Types  of  roofs — Common  terms  in  roof  constriiction — Ridge — Span — 
Run  —  Rise — Pitch — Rafter — Collar  beam — Hip  rafter — Jack 
rafter — Rafter  cutting — Determining  the  cuts — Determining  the 
length — Analytical  method — Carpenters'  method — Hip  roof  fram- 
ing— Cambrel  roof  framing — Other  uses  of  steel  square 345 

CHAPTER  XXXVI 

Weights,  Measures,  and  Formulas 

Measures — Linear — Square — Cubic — Avoirdupois — Liquid — Dry — 
Geometrical  formulas — Decimal  equivalents — Metric  measure — 
Metric  equivalents — Miscellaneous  data 351 

CHAPTER  XXXVII 

Reference  Table  for  Farm  Building  Design* 

Bearing  power  of  soils — Tables  for  proportioning  concrete — Weights 
of  stored  materials — Pounds  per  bushel — Weight  of  wood  per 
board  foot — Weight  of  roof  covering — Table  of  board  measure — 
Lumber  waste  —  Shingles  required  —  Nails  required  —  Paint 
required — Labor  quantities — Loads  on  structures — Live  loads — 
Wind  and  snow  loads — Safe  working  stresses  in  bending — Beam 
formulas — Safe  loads  for  beams — Safe  loads  for  columns — Steel 
columns,  concrete  filled 354 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


CHAPTER  I 
INTRODUCTION 

Farm  buildings  in  America  have  had  their  most  rapid 
development  in  the  years  since  1910.  With  the  exception  of 
that  pertaining  to  the  farmhouse,  there  is  Uttle  literature  to 
be  found  on  the  subject. 

The  conditions  surrounding  the  American  farm  have  tended 
to  hold  back  the  development  of  good  farm  buildings.  The 
early  settlers  in  the  timbered  localities  were  primarily  con- 
cerned with  wresting  a  Uvehhood  from  their  cleared  fields, 
and  bringing  more  land  under  the  plow.  For  their  buildings 
they  used  the  material  nearest  at  hand,  and  the  log  cabin 
and  log  barn  became  a  part  of  the  agricultural  history  of  the 
country.  The  pioneer  on  the  treeless  prairie  used  the  sod 
shanty,  or  the  one-room  board  shack.  The  homesteaders 
were  often  people  with  little  ready  money,  and  their  buildings 
were  only  the  barest  of  shelters. 

In  many  cases  the  early  buildings  still  remain  on  the  farm, 
to  be  used  for  storage,  or  for  a  few  head  of  stock.  The  main 
buildings  may  have  been  entirely  replaced,  or  remodeled  to 
meet  the  changing  needs  of  the  farm  family.  The  result  is 
that  many  farmsteads  give  the  impression  of  being  poorly 
planned  and  run  down.  The  material  used  in  the  early  build- 
ings was  that  most  easily  obtained.  Size  was  looked  upon 
as  an  index  of  the  excellence  of  the  barn  or  house.    Wherever 


2  INTRODUCTION 

timber  was  plentiful,  the  older  barns  were  of  the  heavy  timber 
frame.  If  lumber  were  scarce,  the  farm  buildings  were  made  too 
small,  or  of  insufficient  strength.  Almost  all  of  the  older  farm 
buildings  show  a  lack  of  planning  for  economy  of  materials, 
labor  saving,  light,  ventilation,  and  appearance. 

Farm  Capital  Invested  in  Buildings. — The  present  value 
of  farm  buildings  is  probably  in  excess  of  10  billion  dollars. 
The  census  figures  for  1910  give  the  value  of  all  farm  buildings 
as  more  than  6 J  billion  dollars.  This  is  an  increase  of  3 
bilHons  over  the  1900  figures.  Since  the  1910  figures 
were  collected,  the  most  rapid  development  of  the  silo, 
modern  barn,  combined  corn  crib  and  granary,  good  hog 
house,  and  the  improved  farm  home  has  taken  place.  All 
of  these  have  contributed  to  an  increasing  valuation  of  farm 
structures. 

Farm  buildings  represent  14.7  per  cent  of  the  value  of  all 
farm  property.  This  is  more  than  the  combined  value  of 
implements,  machinery,  and  livestock.  On  the  average,  the 
investment  in  buildings  was  $1773  for  each  farm  in  1920. 

Development  in  Past  Decade. — Development  in  farm 
buildings  in  the  years  since  1910  has  been  rapid  and  continuous. 
Farming  communities  have  become  prosperous,  and  since  the 
fundamental  improvements  of  clearing,  drainage,  and  tillage 
have  been  largely  accomplished,  more  money  is  available  for 
buildings.  Land  values  have  risen,  and  the  owner  is  now 
justified  in  putting  more  improvements  on  the  farm.  Higher 
labor  costs,  higher  prices  for  farm  products,  and  scarcity  of 
building  materials  have  brought  a  realization  of  the  need  for 
buildings  correctly  designed  for  the  purpose  intended.  Light 
and  power  plants,  water  systems,  hvestock  equipment,  grain- 
handling  machinery,  and  the  development  of  permanent 
building  materials  have  all  created  a  desire  for  better  farm 
buildings,  more  home  comforts,  and  labor-saving  apphances. 

Losses  Due  to  Poor  Buildings. — Preventable  losses  totaling 
hundreds  of  milhons  every  year  represent  the  price  being 
paid  by  the  American  farmer  for  poorly  planned  or  inadequate 
structures.    The    loss    in    depreciation    of    farm    machinery 


PROFESSIONAL  FARM  BUILDING  SERVICE  3 

due  to  lack  of  proper  housing  is  at  least  100  million  dollars 
each  year,  according  to  official  estimates.  Two  hundred  mil- 
lion more  are  lost  by  feeding  rodents  from  the  food  storage 
houses  of  the  country.  Milk  production  from  the  20  million 
dairy  cows  would  be  increased  by  several  million  pounds  per 
day  during  the  winter  season,  if  all  the  cows  were  housed  under 
modern  conditions.  Losses  in  the  old-fashioned  hog  house, 
cattle  shed,  and  barn  take  their  toll  of  valuable  livestock 
every  year.     In  practically  every  type  of  farm  structure  losses 


1 


Fig.  2. — An  attractive  farm  house. 


may  be  found  that  could  be  prevented  by  good  buildings. 
In  most  cases,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  ''  we  are  paying 
for  good  buildings  whether  we  have  them  or  not." 

Professional  Farm  Building  Service. — The  services  of  the 
architect  and  engineer  are  needed  on  the  farm.  In  the  past 
the  field  of  the  farming  community  has  not  attracted  the 
architect,  partly  because  the  work  of  the  city  kept  him  busy, 
and  partly  because  the  farmer  has  not  reahzed  the  need  for 
specialized  personal  service.  Much  credit  for  the  develop- 
ment of  farm  buildings  is  due  to  the  professional  services 


4  INTRODUCTION 

rendered  through  the  State  experiment  stations,  agricultural 
colleges,  trade  associations,  and  manufacturers.  These  agen- 
cies have  been  instrumental  in  providing  good  plans,  pointing 
out  economies  of  construction,  and  proving  the  need  of  modern 
farm  equipment. 

At  the  present  time  there  are  a  number  of  men  devoting 
their  entire  time  to  personal  service  in  promoting  better  build- 
ings on  the  farm.  There  is  no  longer  need  to  build  any  farm 
structure  without  the  opportunity  to  study  good  plans  and  avoid 
the  mistakes  in  building,  which  are  sure  to  occur,  if  the  work 
is  done  without  forethought. 

Everyone    interested    in    the    farm    and    farm    building, 


Fig.  3. — A  Southern  cabin. 

whether  farmer,  student,  builder,  or  manufacturer,  should 
work  toward  the  better  appearance,  more  convenient  plan, 
healthier  stock,  and  better  products,  which  characterize  the 
well-planned  group  of  farm  buildings. 

Purpose  and  Plan  of  Text. — It  is  the  aim  of  the  authors 
to  collect  in  readily  available  form  in  this  text  the  information 
on  farm  buildings  that  is  necessary  to  a  good  understanding 
of  the  subject.  Much  good  material  relating  to  farm  buildings 
has  been  published,  but  as  it  has  come  from  so  many  different 
sources,  it  has  not  been  possible  for  the  average  person  to 
avail  himself  of  complete  information.  Publications  of  experi- 
ment stations,  building  trade  associations,  and  commercial  com- 


PURPOSE  AND  PLAN  OF  TEXT  5 

panies,  have  been  drawn  upon  by  the  authors  as  well  as  their 
own  experience  in  designing  and  in  college  teaching. 

The  arrangement  of  the  material  in  the  text  groups  the 
book  into  five  divisions  as  follows:  The  Farm  Barn;  Other 
Farm  Buildings;  The  Farm  Home;  General  Subjects;  and 
Useful  Building'  Information.  Where  the  book  is  used  as 
text  in  courses  of  instruction,  it  will  be  necessary  to  include 
some  laboratory  work  in  drawing  of  building  plans,  and  for 
that  reason  the  plan,  construction,  essentials,  etc.,  are  given 
in  the  early  chapters.  After  these  points  are  covered,  the 
problems  of  location,  materials,  strength,  cost,  and  such 
subjects  may  be  covered  thoroughly.  For  the  reader  other 
than  the  student,  the  interest  is  first  in  the  essentials  of  the 
separate  buildings,  and  later,  when  the  plans  have  been 
decided  upon,  the  general  subjects  will  be  of  more  direct  interest. 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  DAIRY  BARN 

The  dairy  barn  requires  more  careful  planning  than  any 
other  building  on  the  farm  except  the  farmhouse.  As  the 
dairy  herd  requires  some  work  in  the  barn  every  day  in  the  year, 
convenience  of  plan  and  proper  equipment  will  reduce  the 
amount  of  labor  needed,  while  mistakes  in  any  part  of  the  plan 
will  do  more  harm  than  in  a  less  used  building.  The  dairy 
barn  is  a  factory  where  human  food  is  produced,  and  for  this 
reason  the  sanitary  requirements  of  light,  ventilation,  drainage 
and  cleanliness  cannot  be  over-emphasized.  The  barn  should 
be  and  often  is  as  clean  as  many  kitchens. 

The  authors  believe  that  the  best  results  can  be  secured 
by  an  original  plan  for  each  case,  in  which  is  embodied  as  many 
good  features  as  possible.  It  is  not  possible  fully  to  stand- 
ardize complete  plans  with  any  degree  of  satisfaction,  for  each 
farm  furnishes  an  individual  problem.  The  items  of  stalls, 
mangers^  gutters,  alleys,  and  pens  may  be  standardized  and 
the  suggestions  given  in  the  following  paragraphs  have  been 
found  to  give  the  best  results  in  many  barns. 

Location. — The  dairy  barn  should  be  located  with  refer- 
ence to  the  other  buildings  in  the  farmstead  group,  as  dis- 
cussed in  Chapter  XXVI.  A  study  of  existing  buildings  must  be 
made  before  the  exact  location  can  be  determined,  and  a  study 
should  be  made  of  feed  lots,  pastures,  windbreaks,  and  the 
contour  of  the  ground.  An  open  yard  to  the  south  is  desirable. 
Sheds  or  wings  connected  to  the  main  barn  should  be  located 
with  the  idea  of  securing  protection,  without  interfering  with 
light  and  ventilation.  The  barn  should  be  placed  with  the 
long  axis  north  and  south,  in  order  to  secure  direct  sunhght 
on  the  stalls  for  as  much  of  the  day  as  possible. 

6 


CEILING  HEIGHT  7 

Ceiling  Height. — Eight  and  one-half  feet  is  perhaps  the 
best  ceiHng  height  in  the  dairy  stable.  Ceihngs  below  8 
feet  afford  too  little  headroom,  and  interfere  with  the  correct 
lighting.  More  than  9  feet  of  headroom  costs  more,  reduces 
the  amount  of  hay  storage  above,  and  is  difficult  to  keep  warm 
in  winter.  The  height  is  measured  from  the  alley  at  the  rear 
of  the  stalls  to  the  under  side  of  the  joists.  Stables  of  the 
monitor  type,  which  give  a  ceihng  height  of  12  feet  or  more, 
and  have  windows  in  the  upper  part  of  the  wall,  should  be 
avoided  in  cold  climates. 

Width. — The  best  width  for  the  dairy  barn  is  between 
32  and  38  feet,  providing  for  two  rows  of  stalls  lengthwise  of 


Fig.  4. — A  modern  dairy  barn  and  yards. 


the  barn.  A  width  of  34  or  36  feet  works  out  to  the  best 
advantage  in  affording  correct  widths  of  alleys  and  stalls. 
However,  the  items  making  up  the  width  of  the  barn  may  be 
varied  somewhat  from  the  standard  dimensions  to  as  much 
as  4  feet,  more  or  less,  than  34  feet,  if  necessary.  Barns  for 
more  than  two  rows  of  stock  are  not  recommended.  The 
framing  of  the  wide  barns  is  heavier,  and  more  difficult  to 
construct,  hence  more  expensive.  Hay  storage  is  more  of  a 
problem  and  the  barn  is  difficult  to  hght  and  ventilate. 

Length. — The  length  of  the  diary  barn  depends  entirely 
on  the  amount  of  stock  to  be  housed,  barns  150  feet  or  more  in 
length  being  not  uncommon.     There  is  no  definite  relation 


8 


THE  DAIRY  BARN 


as  regards  appearance  between  the  width  and  length  of  the 
barn.  Large  dairy  plants  are  made  in  two  or  more  units, 
connected  in  L  or  U  shapes,  forming  a  sheltered  yard. 

Facing  the   Stock. — Cows   in   stalls   may   face  the  outer 
wall,  with  a  single  cleaning  alley  in  the  center,  or  they  may 


GR/tJJJS- 


CROSS    SRCTlO/r    3e'-0"  S/iJRJr"r/IC£  OCT' 

Fig.  5. — A  cross-section  of  a  36 -foot  dairy  bam — cows  faced  out. 


face  on  a  center  feeding  alley.  These  two  methods  of  ''  face 
out  "  and  "  face  in  "  are  about  equally  favored  by  good  dairy- 
men, and  the  personal  preference  of  the  owner  should  be  the 
deciding  factor.  A  comparison  of  the  advantages  of  the  two 
facings  follows: 

Advantages  of  "  face  out  "  arrangement: 

Cleaning   is   done   from   one   alley,   direct   to   manure 
spreader,  if  desired. 


6RASB 


CROSS'  s^CTiorf  se-o"  SARrr  "j^cs  /jt" 
Fig.  6. — A  cross-section  of  a  36-foot  dairy  barn — cows  faced  in. 


Three-fourths  of  the  barn  work  is  done  behind  the  stock. 
Sunlight  falls  directly  on  the  manger,  and  keeps  the 

feeding  compartments  sanitary. 
Stock  on  display  shows  better  from  the  rear. 


STALLS 


9 


It  is  not  necessary  to  divide  the  herd  at  the  door. 
Box  stalls  may  be  arranged  with  less  waste  space. 
Advantages  of  "  face  in  "  arrangement: 
Cows  are  fed  from  one  alley. 

Feeding  is  done  more  often  than  milking  and  cleaning. 
Sunlight  on  the  gutter  aids  sanitation. 
Better  light  for  milking. 

Entrance  by  two  doors  avoids  danger  from  crowding. 
Ventilating   system   can  be  installed   to  much  better 
advantage. 


STALL 


•S"  OOrfOR^TB    PLOOJ^ 


Poar/DATiorf  •  i^j^ooR  e,  ^T/^ll  i?£T»il 


'^-JSTALL  COJ9»\5\*-R£TA/yY/yy<S 

r...T.»;)Vj.«  M 


rrsTYfcti?  o/^  /y/ST/izLiyrs  cork 

SRIC/C  OR    WOOD  SI.OC/C 


Fig.  7. — Details  of  dairy  cow  stalls. 


Stalls. — Cow  stalls  are  3  feet  4  inches  wide  in  a  large 
number  of  the  modern  dairy  barns,  with  varying  widths  of 
from  3  feet  2  inches  to  3  feet  6  inches.  The  latter  width  is 
quite  commonly  taken  as  a  standard.  Very  narrow  stalls 
are  inconvenient,  and  are  not  comfortable  for  the  cow.  Wide 
stalls  allow  the  manure  to  be  deposited  on  the  standing  platform. 

An  average  length  of  stall  platform  from  curb  to  gutter  is 
4  feet  8  inches,  as  this  length  will  care  for  the  average  diary 
animal.     There  are  several  means  for  adjusting  the  length 


10 


THE  DAIRY  BARS 


of  the  platform  to  suit  the  needs  of  different  cows.  One  of 
the  moBt  common  is  to  use  adjustable  stanchions  to  align  the 
oows  on  the  gutter.  Another  method  is  to  var}^  the  length 
of  the  row  by  making  the  gutter  at  an  angle  with  the  curb, 
thus  providing  a  graded  length  of  platform.  In  large  bams 
different  sections  of  stalls  may  have  standing  platforms  ranging 
from  4  feet  5  inches  to  5  fe^.  In  old  bams  it  is  often  neces- 
sary to  fit  the  stalls  into  a  given  space,  in  which  case  the  above 
figures  may  be  varied  within  narrow  limits. 

Manger. — The  dairy  manger  should  be  permanent,  sanitary, 
and  easily  cleaned.  The  \^4dth  and  height  should  be  such 
that  the  cow  will  not  throw  feed  out  into  the  alley,  yet  not  so 
large   as   to    cause   inconvenience   in   feeding.     The   manger 


-^a' 


\-m  *T>|<**'   fcf 


Fig.  8. — Standard  mangers. 

should  be  built  so  the  cow  may  feed  near  a  level  with  her  feet, 
as  in  the  pasture.  Manufacturers  have  had  standard  mangers 
which  met  the  above  essentials,  but  some  confusion  has 
lesulted  due  to  slight  differences  in  the  measurements.  The 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  has  recommended 
tlie  following  as  the  standard  measurements  for  mangers: 


Width, 
Inefaee 

Hei^t  of  Front, 
Inches 

20 
24 

28 
32 

6 
12 
18 
24 

The  riiape  of  the  bottom  of  the  manger  is  formed  by  the  arc  of  a  cirde 
Hut  fRMit  of  tbe  curb  and  the  manger  front.  The  radius  of  the 
are  ib  18  laot^lMBikt  mtd.  w  -centered  at  a  pfjint  7  inches  La  front  of  the  stall 
frame.     (See  Fig,  8.) 


GUTTER  11 

Concrete  Is  the  recommended  material  for  the  manger,  as 
it  is  easily  made  to  any  desired  shape,  and  is  permanent  and 
easily  cleaned.  The  manger  is  made  at  the  same  time  as  the 
floor,  and  may  be  an  integral  part  of  it.  If  the  cows  are  to 
be  fed  individually,  there  should  be  divisions  between  the 
mangers.  These  divisions  are  usually  made  of  steel,  and 
should  be  arranged  to  raise  for  easy  cleaning  of  the  manger. 
Steel  mangers  on  a  concrete  base  are  sometimes  used  in  place 
of  concrete. 

Curb. — The  curb  forms  the  rear  of  the  manger,  and  serves 
to   hold   the   stanchions  and   stall   frame.     Bolts,   plates,   or 


Fig.  9. — Cows  in  stanchions. 

anchors  are  placed  in  the  curb  at  the  time  the  concrete  is 
poured,  and  the  equipment  is  bolted  fast  later.  The  curb  is 
6  inches  high,  and  4  to  6  inches  wide.  A  rich  mixture  of  con- 
crete is  necessary  for  the  curb  construction. 

Gutter. — The  purpose  of  the  gutter  is  to  promote  sanitation 
by  confining  the  manure  below  the  level  of  the  stall;  by 
preventing  spatter  of  liquid  manure;  and  keeping  the  litter 
from  being  scattered  over  the  entire  floor.  The  width  usually 
provided  is  16  inches.  On  the  stall  side  the  depth  is  7  or  8 
inches,  and  on  the  alley  side  about  4  inches.  The  bottom 
of  the  gutter  should  be  made  level  crosswise  rather  than  sloping 
and  the  litter  alley  made  about  3  inches  lower  than  I  he  platform, 


12 


THE  DAIRY  BARN 


There  is,  however,  a  slope  lengthwise  of  the  gutter,  of  about 
1  inch  in  25  feet  for  drainage. 

Feed  and  Litter  Alleys. — The  feed  alley  should  be  from 
5  to  6  feet  wide,  if  the  cows  face  the  center  of  the  barn.  In 
the  face-out  arrangement  the  minimum  width  should  be  3 
feet  6  inches,  and  4  feet  is  considered  as  about  the  best  width. 
A  center  Htter  alley  should  be  from  6  to  8  feet,  and  at  least 
4  feet  6  inches  when  the  stock  face  the  center.  In  case  a 
driveway  through  the  barn  is  desired,  8  feet  is  the  minimum 
width  between  gutters  or  mangers.    The  best  alley  widths,  in 


'TYPICAL     J^AOOK    PLArf  •  SPK^tJYajfJ^S^fT  &  DIJ^Erf'aroff^ 

Fig.  10. — A  floor  plan  of  a  dairy  barn  giving  usual  dimensions. 


connection  with  the  widths  given  above  for  stall,  manger, 
curb,  and  gutter,  can  readily  be  secured  in  the  common  widths 
of  34  and  36  feet  for  the  entire  barn. 

Cross  alleys  should  be  provided  at  intervals  in  the  length 
of  the  barn,  for  crossing  from  side  to  center  alleys;  they 
should  be  3  feet  or  more  in  width,  and  placed  at  frequent 
intervals,  depending  on  the  floor  plan. 

Box  Stalls  or  Cow  Pens. — Very  few  well-equipped  barns 
are  without  one  or  more  box  stalls.  For  more  than  a  half 
dozen  cows  the  box  stall  is  a  necessity.  At  calving  time  or 
when  an  animal  is  sick,  freedom  of  movement  and  careful 


BULL  PEN  13 

handling  is  possible  only  in  such  a  stall.  Cows  on  official 
test  are  often  housed  in  a  box  stall  for  best  yields.  The  box 
stall  should  be  at  least  8  feet  each  way,  and  is  fitted  with  gate, 
feed  box,  and  stanchion. 

Bull  Pen. — To  keep  the  bull  in  best  condition  he  must 
not  be  too  closely  confined,  must  be  allowed  to  exercise,  kept  in 
sight  of  the  herd,  and  yet  be  kept  so  he  cannot  harm  the 
attendant.  The  pen  must  be  strong  and  substantial,  and  should 
be  9  feet  or  larger  each  way,  in  order  that  the  bull  cannot  brace 
himself  across  the  pen.  A  low  manger,  heavy  stanchion, 
and  a  safe  gate  constitute  the  necessary  parts. 

Calf  Pens. — The  calves  should  be  housed  in  the  dairy 
barn  both  for  warmth  and  convenience.  The  main  barn  is 
hkely  to  be  better  lighted  and  ventilated  than  a  separate  calf 
shed.  The  pen,  at  least  7  feet  in  the  least  dimension,  should 
provide  means  for  stanchioning  each  calf,  so  they  may  be  fed 
individually.  Stanchions  about  20  inches  apart  along  the 
front  panel,  a  flat-bottom  feed  trough  16  inches  wide,  and  metal 
shields  between  stanchions  are  essential. 

Floors. — A  dairy  barn  floor  should  be  sanitary,  permanent, 
easily  cleaned,  and  comfortable  for  the  cows.  None  of  the 
materials  used  is  ideal  in  everj^  respect.  Concrete,  however, 
is  the  most  generally  satisfactory  material,  and  its  use  is  recom- 
mended. For  the  standing  platform,  wood  blocks  or  cork 
brick  are  desirable.  The  materials  used  for  dairy  barn  floors 
are  dirt,  wood,  hollow  tile,  concrete,  wood  blocks,  and  cork 
brick. 

Dirt  floors  are  cheap,  and  are  suitable  for  cheap  construc- 
tion only.  The  dirt  floor  becomes  fouled,  tramped  out  of 
shape,  and  part  of  the  dirt  is  carried  out  with  the  litter.  When 
dirt  floors  are  used  it  is  essential  that  the  manger  and  gutter, 
at  least,  be  of  some  more  permanent  material. 

Wood  floors,  which  were  formerly  used  almost  entirely, 
are  giving  way  to  better  material.  Wood  floors  are  expensive 
to  build,  harbor  rodents,  decay,  and  are  unsanitary  from  every 
standpoint.     They  must  be  replaced  every  few  years. 

Hollow-tile  floors  are  made  by  placing  a  layer  of  4-inch  or 


14 


THE  DAIRY  BARN 


5-inch  hollow  building  tile  on  a  sand  cushion  and  covering 
with  2  inches  of  cement  mortar.  Defective  tile  may  be  used 
to  reduce  the  cost.  The  advantage  claimed  for  tile  floors 
is  that  the  air  spaces  in  the  tile  tend  to  stop  the  passage 
of  moisture  and  cold  through  the  floor.  The  tile  are  not  used 
in  the  floor  of  the  driveway. 

Concrete  is  the  material  recommended  for  average  con- 
ditions. The  cost  is  comparatively  low,  the  material  is  readily 
adapted  to  the  shape  desired,  and  the  resulting  floor  has  all 


SPA 


zijya  or  tjso33£& 


*FiLOOR  PLAJf  'SHOWiy^G  I^OOATlorf  OF  DOOR   WirfDOWQ- 
'DRATrfS*  ffAV  cfforsS'AifD  vrriTJLATirfo  r.La£^ ' 

Fig.  11. — ^A  floor  plan  of  a  dairy  barn  indicating  location  of  hay 
chutes,  ventilating  flues,  windows,  etc. 


the  essentials  except  warmth.    The  construction  is  similar  to 
sidewalks,  and  is  discussed  in  Chapter  XXVIIl. 

Wood  blocks  and  cork  brick  are  not  intended  for  the 
whole  floor,  but  only  for  the  standing  platform  The  object 
is  to  provide  a  warm,  dry,  resilient,  and  comfortable  floor  for 
the  stall,  and  also  one  that  is  not  slippery.  These  materials  aie 
laid  on  a  concrete  base.  The  wood  blocks  are  creosoted  to 
prevent  decay,  and  are  laid  with  asphalt  joints  to  care  for 
expansion.    The  cork  brick  are  made  from  a  mixture  of  cork 


DRAINAGE  15 

and  asphalt,  and  give  a  very  excellent  floor.  These  materials 
are  more  expensive  to  install  than  the  more  common  flooring 
materials,  but  especially  for  high  producing  dairies,  and  breeding 
stock,  their  use  is  justified.  For  the  small  or  average  barn, 
concrete  with  an  abundance  of  bedding  is  satisfactory. 

Drainage. — There  should  be  a  drain  in  the  bottom  of 
each  manger  and  gutter,  so  placed  that  each  outlet  will  care 
for  from  25  to  30  feet  of  length.  Special  drains  are  necessary 
if  the  hquid  manure  is  to  be  cared  for  through  drains.  The 
standing  platform  should  slope  1  inch  back  toward  the  gutter. 
The  Utter  alley  should  be  sloped  toward  the  gutter  at  the 
rate  of  about  1  inch  in  4  feet.  Feed  alleys  are  given  a  slight 
pitch  to  one  side,  for  thorough  drainage.  Gutter  and  manger 
bottoms  should  slope  about  1  inch  in  25  feet  to  a  drain.  Pens 
and  box  stalls  are  not  usually  provided  with  drains,  but  the 
pen  floor  should  slope  slightly  toward  the  gate,  for  flushing. 

Lighting. — Four  square  feet  of  glass,  well  placed,  should  be 
provided  for  each  mature  animal  in  the  dairy  barn.  For 
pens,  it  is  usual  to  allow  1  square  foot  of  glass  area  for  each 
25  square  feet  of  floor  space.  Light  is  essential  for  convenience 
in  handhng  the  work  in  the  barn,  for  cow  comfort,  and  sani- 
tation. Double  glazed  sash  or  storm  windows  are  desirable 
in  the  colder  sections  of  the  country. 

Milk  Room. — The  milk  room  should  not  be  included  in  the 
dairy  barn,  but  should  be  planned  as  a  separate  structure,  as 
discussed  in  Chapter  XIX.  When  located  inside  the  barn, 
the  milk  room  is  hkely  to  be  unsanitary,  and  where  a  steam 
boiler  is  used  the  fire  risk  is  increased. 

Feeding  Conveniences. — A  feed  storage  room  is  essential 
in  connection  with  the  dairy  barn.  Where  cows  are  fed 
individually,  space  for  mixing  feeds  and  adding  concentrates 
is  needed.  It  is  cheaper  to  carry  the  feed  to  the  barn  by  the 
wagon  load  rather  than  by  hand.  The  feed  room  should 
provide  for  at  least  two  or  three  wagon  loads  of  feed  at  one 
time  and  should,  of  course,  be  convenient  to  the  stalls  and  the 
feeding  alley.  Overhead  bins  in  the  hay  loft  are  economical, 
if  a  portable  elevator  is  available. 


16 


THE  DAIRY  BARN 


The  silo  may  be  located  at  the  side  or  end  of  the  barn,  in 
the  most  convenient  position  for  easy  feeding.  A  single 
silo  should  be  located  about  6  or  8  feet  from  the  barn,  and  the 
space  covered,  to  form  a  passage.  Two  silos  when  placed 
together  should  have  a  larger  passage  to  the  barn,  and  be  so 


Ft- 


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~M-^£^^^^wzii^ 


'TYPICAL  T^LOOR  PX.A7)r.3^--a' JSAPyt  CSILO   Tacb    Ijy' 

Fig.  12. — A  floor  plan  of  a  typical  dairy  barn. 

arranged  that  silage  from  either  may  be  fed  to  the  entire 
herd.  The  practice  of  placing  the  silo  inside  the  barn  is  to  be 
discouraged,  on  account  of  the  additional  cost  and  the  incon- 
venience of  filling. 

Hay  storage  above  the  dairy  stable  is  an  economy,  and 


Q,RO^S    SBCTIOAf  ■  S- ROW  -^AIRTT    JSAKrr  • 

Fig.  13. — A  cross-section  of  a  wide  dairy  barn. 


should  be  provided  in  every  case,  except  where  freedom  from 
dust  is  demanded  in  the  production  of  certified  milk,  or  where 
a  feeding  barn  is  already  available  close  at  hand.  Modern 
barns   with   average   height   walls   and   self-supporting   roof 


DAIRY  STABLE  IN  THE  GENERAL  BARN  17 

will  hold  approximately  a  ton  of  hay  per  foot  of  length  of  the 
barn.  Equipment  for  handUng  hay  should  be  provided  in 
all  cases. 

Dairy  Stable  in  the  General  Bam. — The  points  discussed 
above  apply  in  particular  to  the  dairy  barn  without  other 
stock.  Where  ten  or  more  cows  are  kept  in  the  general  pur- 
pose barn,  the  two  row  arrangement  is  the  best,  and  the  above 
principles  apply.  For  a  very  few  cows,  feed  rooms,  box 
stalls,  and  like  features  must  be  worked  out  in  connection 
with  the  balance  of  the  plan. 


CHAPTER  III 


THE  HORSE  BARN 


The  horse  barn  on  most  farms  is  an  item  of  expense  for 
maintaining  work  animals,  rather  than  a  factory  for  farm 
products,  for  which  reason  it  is  Hkely  to  be  shghted,  in  an 


-/2'-0 


l-XXV     /^J.I.CY' 


run  III  M I 


tQ  c^fTKyjfir    yjg/ 


C4^KK/J!»     TRACK 


11  m-^4-hA 


MSmi.     PES  J)     SOX  MS 


eo'-O" 


*  F^LOOR    PL  A  AT  •  ^O  ass    SAR^f  -  *Fi^C.r    OOT'-- 

Fig.  14. — A  floor  plan  of  a  typical  horse  barn. 

attempt  to  keep  the  expense  as  low  as  possible.  The  results 
of  poor  housing  for  the  horses  are  not  apparent  at  once.  How- 
ever, if  the  items  of  efficiency,  depreciation,  labor,  and  feed 
saving  are  considered,  the  problem  of  the  horse  barn  plan 
assumes  more  importance. 

Essentials  of  the  Horse  Bam. — The  horse  barn  requires 
in  a  general  way  the  -same  essentials  as  the  dairy  barn.     It 

18 


LOCATION 


19 


should  be  light,  well  ventilated,  convenient  for  the  attendant, 
and  should  provide  for  the  comfort  of  the  animals.  The 
following  items  should  be  considered  as  relating  especially 
to  the  horse  barn  plan:  (1)  location,  (2)  width,  (3)  ceihng 
height,  (4)  alleys,  (5)  standing  stalls,  (6)  box  stalls,  (7)  floors, 
(8)  harness  room,  and  (9)  feed  and  hay  storage. 

Location. — It  is  important  that  the  horse  barn  be  located 
so  that  the  work  animals  can  be  brought  from  the  barn  to  the 
service  drive  or  yard  without  passing  through  gates.  The 
convenience  in  getting  the  horses  to  and  from  fields,  and  to 
the  machine  shed  should  be  considered.  The  general  points 
of  location  are  considered  in  Chapter  XXVI. 

Width —The  two  widths  of  30  and  36  feet  are  the  best 


t— j"    corrcnjiTs  floor  ^'r»  «' 
•  CROSS    SECT/O/Y  •  .5<S  -  ^  '•  ffORSJB  BAlSTf  • 

Fig.  15. — A  cross-section  of  a  36-foot  horse  barn — horses  faced  in, 


for  two  rows  of  horse  stalls.  In  the  narrow  barn  the  animals 
are  faced  to  the  wall,  and  no  feed  alley  is  provided.  In  the 
36-foot  barn  the  stock  may  be  faced  either  in  or  out,  and  three 
alleys  provided.  One  row  of  stalls  requires  about  18  feet  for 
allej^,  stall,  manger,  and  walk. 

Ceiling  Height. — The  distance  from  the  floor  to  the 
under  side  of  the  ceiling  joists  should  be  at  least  8  feet,  and 
%\  or  9  feet  is  preferable.  Low  ceilings  in  the  horse  barn 
are  usually  associated  with  dark,  stuffy  barns,  and  there  is 
also  some  danger  of  injury  to  the  stock. 

Alleys. — Feed  alleys  are  made  from  3  to  4  feet  wide,  3 
feet  being  the  minimum  for  convenient  feeding.  The  fitter 
alley  or  driveway  should  be  10  feet  wide  if  the  horses  face  out, 
to  avoid  danger  from  kicking.     If  the  stock  are  faced  to  the 


20 


THE  HORSE  BARN 


center,  the  litter  alley  at  the  wall  should  be  5i  to  6  feet  wide. 
Cross  alleys  for  passage  may  be  3  or  more  feet  wide  if  stock 
are  to  pass  through. 

Standing  Stalls. — The  standing  stalls  for  work  animals 
may  be  single  or  double.  Most  barns  have  both  kinds,  the 
work  teams  standing  together,  the  single  stalls  being  used 
for  restless  animals,  driving  or  saddle  stock  or  large  horses. 
The  standard  single  stall  is  4  feet  6  inches  wide  from  center 
to  center  of  partition.  In  stalls  much  narrower  than  4  feet 
6  inches  there  is  danger  of  the  horse  being  caught  fast  when 


cjsoss  sscT/oyy  rtoRS£  stall- 
Fig.  16. — Details  of  a  horse  stall. 


lying  down.  In  wide  stalls,  the  animal  may  be  caught  while 
attempting  to  turn  around. 

Qouble  stalls  range  from  8  to  9  feet  wide,  with  8  feet  as  the 
most  common.  The  length  of  both  single  and  double  stalls  is 
9  feet  from  the  front  of  the  manger  to  the  rear  of  the  stall 
partition.  The  top  of  the  manger  is  2  feet  wide,  and  the 
standing  platform  is  7  feet  long. 

Box  Stalls. — The  box  stall  should  be  provided  wherever 
more  than  three  or  four  horses  are  kept.  It  is  valuable  for 
sick  animals,  colts,  or  mares  at  foaling  time.  The  minimum 
size  for  the  horse  box  stall  is  10  feet  each  way,  and  a  stall  12  by 
12  feet  is  preferred.  In  many  plans  the  box  stall  may  be  so 
arranged  that  it  will  serve  as  a  double  standing  stall  when 
desired.     The  box  stall- should  be  equipped  with  a  feed  box 


STALL  CONSTRUCTION  21 

and  manger  of  a  type  which  takes  up  but  little  room,  and  has 
no  projecting  corners  in  the  stall. 

Stall  Construction. — Stalls  should  be  made  tight,  or  practi- 
cally so,  to  a  height  of  about  4  feet.  Above  this  height  there 
should  be  a  guard  of  wire  mesh,  or  iron  bars,  or  even  wood, 
to  a  height  of  2  feet,  between  the  stalls.  The  manger  is  built 
up  to  a  height  of  4  feet  on  the  alley  side  and  3J  feet  on  the 
stall  side.  The  back  of  the  manger  should  vary  from  2  feet 
wide  at  the  top  to  about  12  inches  at  the  bottom,  the  latter 
being  16  inches  from  the  floor.  A  small  opening  is  left  in  the 
bottom  through  which  dirt  and  chaff  may  be  cleaned  out. 

The  materials  used  in  horse  stall  construction  are  wood, 


Q,»ii/r//hi,         CMAJVjrrA 


FPO/fT  OF  .STAIJL       OOLOJ^/f  r^f  PATiTlTlO/f    COLOJ^/f  AT R£A19 


^a/ATO/>    POST         >STSEL  POST  /^T  RSA7? 


'DETAILS   OF  ^ai^SJS  STALL    CO^fSTJ^OCTlO^f - 

Fig.  17. — Details  of  horse  stall  construction. 

concrete  and  steel.  Wood  is  the  most  common  material  in  use. 
The  construction  is  principally  of  2-inch  planks.  Two  by  12- 
inch  pieces  are  used  for  the  partitions  and  manger,  with  2  by  4- 
inch  material  for  the  framing.  Supporting  posts  and  braces 
may  be  of  4  by  4  or  6  by  6-inch  lumber,  as  required  for  strength. 
Concrete  is  an  excellent  material  for  the  lower  parts  of 
the  stall  and  manger,  being  permanent,  sanitary,  and  a 
preventive  of  kicking  and  cribbing;  it  is  somewhat  more 
expensive  than  wood.  The  concrete  partitions  and  walls 
should  be  3  or  4  inches  thick,  reinforced  with  wire  mesh,  and 
the  corners  protected  with  channel  bars.  Permanent  fixtures 
such  as  tie  rings  and  harness  hooks  should  be  placed  when  the 
concrete  is  poured. 


22 


THE  HORSE  BARN 


Steel  construction  for  the  horse  stall  is  a  recent  develop- 
ment. Its  principal  use  is  in  supplementing  the  other  mate- 
rials.   Guard  rails,  feed  boxes,  hay  racks,  and  mangers  are 


'CO^fCRSTE   MORSE  STALL' 

Fig.  18. — ^A  concrete  horse  stall. 


now  made  of  iron  and  steel,  and  are  very  satisfactory.    The 
steel  is  of  good  appearance,  hght,  and  easily  cleaned. 

Floors. — The  most  generally  satisfactory  floor  for  the  horse 
barn  is  one  of  concrete  overlaid  with  2-inch  plank.     Concrete 


Fig.  19. — Showing  horse  in  stall. 

alone  has  the  objection  of  being  hard,  and  it  is  claimed  by 
some  users  that  the  horses  are  injured  if  they  stand  for  a 
considerable  time  on  the  concrete  floor.  Wood  blocks  and 
cork  brick  are  used  in  the  horse  barn,  and  are  considered 
better  than  plank. 


HARNESS  ROOM 


23 


The  plank  overlay  in  the  stall  is  raised  2  inches  above 
the  alley  floor.  The  stall  floor  is  sloped  1  inch  in  its  length 
toward  the  gutter.    The  gutter  in  the  horse  barn  should 


i^r 


\ST/iIJL 


PZ/irf/f,,c.o  i^£jp 


Fig.  20. — Typical  gutters  for  horse  bams. 

consist  of  a  slight  depression  in  the  floor,  and  not  a  distinct 
gutter.  Another  method  of  securing  drainage  is  to  make  a 
gutter  8  inches  deep  and  6  inches  wide,  and  cover  it  loosely 
with  a  plank  set  flush  with  the  floor. 


Fig.  21. — A  Gothic  roof  horse  barn. 

Aside  from  the  standing  platform,  the  stable  floor  should 
be  made  entirely  of  concrete,  as  in  the  dairy  barn. 

Harness  Room. — The  principal  purpose  of  the  harness 
room  is  to  provide  a  place  for  the  storage  of  saddles,  driving 


24  THE  HORSE  BARN 

harness,  and  parts  which  are  not  in  daily  use,  since  harness 
lasts  longer  when  protected  from  the  manure  fumes.  Equip- 
ment left  around  the  stable  is  soon  lost,  fouled,  or  destroyed. 
Some  farmers  put  the  work  harness  in  a  special  harness  room 
every  night,  by  means  of  carriers  on  the  litter  carrier  track. 
The  harness  room  should  be  about  the  length  of  the  stall 
row,  and  from  5  to  8  feet  wide.  The  walls  should  be  made 
tight,  and  close-fitting  doors  provided. 

Feed  and  Hay  Storage. — Feed  is  required  in  the  horse 
barn  the  year  around,  and  the  most  feed  is  used  in  the  busy 
seasons.  For  this  reason,  some  provision  should  be  made 
for  the  storage  of  several  loads  of  feedstuffs  at  one  time. 
Hay  storage  should  be  provided  as  in  the  dairy  barn. 


CHAPTER  IV 
BEEF  CATTLE  AND   SHEEP  BARNS 

The  problem  of  the  care,  feed,  and  management  of  beef 
cattle  and  sheep  is  increasingly  important  on  the  farm,  due 
in  part  to  higher  prices  for  farm  land,  the  disappearance  of 
grazing  lands,  and  the  greater  demand  for  beef  and  mutton. 
More  attention  is  now  being  paid  to  the  production  of  young 
beef,  and  to  breeding  of  pure  bred  stock,  factors  which  call 
for  more  care  and  better  management.  The  barn  or  shelter 
is  one  of  the  most  important  items  in  the  handling  of  livestock. 

Location. — The  beef  barns  may  be  utihzed  as  a  wind- 
break for  the  other  buildings,  and  to  form  a  sheltered  yard. 
A  protected  feeding  yard  to  the  south  or  east  should  be  pro- 
vided. Drainage  of  the  barn  and  feed  lots  is  important, 
especially  as  the  stock  is  fed  considerable  roughage  in  the  yards. 
Convenience  to  silos,  cribs,  and  hay  storage  should  be  considered 
in  locating  the  feeding  barn,  and  provision  should  be  made  for 
entrance  of  wagons  and  spreaders  without  inconvenience. 

Types  of  Beef  Bams. — The  requirements  for  a  barn  for 
feeding  mature  animals  differs  somewhat  from  those  for  baby 
beef.  Breeding  herds  need  a  different  sort  of  shelter  than  the 
fat  stock.  For  the  purpose  of  the  present  discussion,  the 
authors  have  divided  the  subject  into  feeding  barns,  breeding 
barns,  and  barns  for  baby  beef  production.  Barns  for  feeding 
stock  are  the  most  common,  and  will  be  discussed  more  fully 
here. 

Essentials  of  Feeding  Bams. — For  successful  feeding 
the  beef  barn  must  be  planned  for  correct  size,  to  provide 
feed  storage,  to  shelter  the  stock  in  severe  weather,  and  to 
provide  for  storing  and  handhng  manure. 

25 


26         BEEF  CATTLE  AND  SHEEP  BARNS 

Size. — The  width  of  the  feeding  barn  is  limited  by  the 
framing  necessary  to  support  the  roof,  depending  somewhat 
on  the  shape  of  the  barn.  For  the  self-supporting  roof,  the 
maximum  width  is  about  42  feet,  barns  wider  than  this  being 
difficult  to  light  and  ventilate  properly.  The  best  beef  barns  are 
from  36  to  42  feet  wide,  and  the  average  space  allowance  in 
the  pens  is  40  square  feet  of  floor  for  each  animal.     A  baby 


d 


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1 

•4 

1 

asvA^  9\riTi^  YARD  i.Ajz<3e-  £R£j^Dfyya  ^Aifrr 

Fig.  22. — Common  types  of  beef  cattle  bams. 

beef  requires  about  35  square  feet.  In  pens  for  less  than 
ten  head  of  stock,  the  space  should  be  increased  to  50  or  more 
square  feet.  Two  feet  of  rack  or  feed  bunk  is  needed  for 
each  animal.  The  ceihng  height  should  be  at  least  9  feet, 
to  allow  some  accumulation  of  manure.  Driveways  should 
be  8  to  10  feet  wide. 

Feed  Storage. — A  majority  of  the  feeding  barns  provide 
hay  storage  in  the  overhead  loft,  but  in  any  event  the  supply 
of  hay  should  be  near  .at  hand  in  sufficient  amounts  to  avoid 


SHELTER  IN  SEVERE  WEATHER  27 

long  hauls  in  severe  weather.  Grain  is  usually  stored  in  sepa- 
rate cribs,  but  they  should  be  near  at  hand,  and  arranged  so 
that  wagon  loads  may  be  handled  at  one  time,  while  the  silo 
should  also  be  located  for  ease  of  feeding  directly  into  bunks. 
Much  handling  may  be  avoided  by  carriers  from  the  silo  to 
the  troughs. 

One  ton  of  hay  occupies  about  500  cubic  feet  of  space, 
a  ton  of  silage  50  to  60  cubic  feet,  and  one  ton  of  shelled  corn 
about  40  cubic  feet.  If  the  ration  is  figured,  it  is  an  easy 
matter  to  figure  the  amount  of  storage  necessary. 

Since  the  major  part  of  the  work  with  beef  cattle  is  the 
feeding,  and  much  time  may  be  lost  by  careless  arrangement, 


Fig.  23. — A  small  beef  cattle  barn  in  Iowa. 

all  bunks,  racks,  and  storage  rooms  should  be  arranged  for 
feeding  from  a  wagon. 

Shelter  in  Severe  Weather. — The  shelters  in  use  for 
fattening  stock  range  from  the  extremes  of  no  protection 
whatever  to  well-bedded  box  stalls  in  a  closed  barn.  Some 
quite  successful  feeders  maintain  that  because  of  the  protective 
covering  of  fat,  the  animal  does  not  need  any  other  shelter 
from  the  cold.  While  it  is  true  that  the  fattening  animal  will 
stand  more  cold  than  the  more  dehcate  dairy  cow,  it  is  certain 
that  some  energy  must  be  expended  to  maintain  bodily  warmth. 
Most  feeders  agree  that  some  sort  of  shelter  is  necessary  for 
most  economical  production.  Shelter  walls  or  windbreaks 
of  trees  help  to  provide  a  sheltered  yard  in  which  much  of  the 


28 


BEEF  CATTLE  AND  SHEEP  BARNS 


feeding  may  be  done.  Many  of  the  feeding  barns  are  closed 
on  but  three  sides.  If  the  barn  is  of  the  closed  type,  large 
doors  are  used,  and  these  doors  are  not  closed  except  in 
severe  weather. 

Handling  of  Manure. — Beef  animals  produce  a  considerable 
amount  of  manure,  and  many  farmers  in  certain  localities 
consider  that  the  value  of  the  manure  offsets  the  labor  in  caring 
for  the  stock.  Manure  may  be  allowed  to  accumulate  in  the 
feeding  barn  and  yard  to  a  depth  of  2  feet  or  more  before  it 
is  hauled  away.  Concrete  floors  and  pavements  aid  in  handling 
the  manure.    It  should  be  possible  to  drive  a  spreader  to  any 


e-*a-  f<>sr:3/eva. 


'  CKOS-9  SSCTIorf  £££/=   CutTTLS  Sff^D' 

Fig.  24. — Cross-section  of  a  cattle  shed. 


part  of  the  feeding  barn,  to  save  excessive  handhng  of  the 
manure. 

Sanitary  Requirements. — The  beef  barn  does  not  require 
as  careful  attention  to  the  essentials  of  sanitation  as  the  dairy 
barn.  Drainage  may  be  accompUshed  by  allowing  I -inch 
slope  to  the  foot  for  concrete  floors  and  paving,  or  2  feet  per 
hundred  for  unpaved  yards.  Unless  the  yards  have  good 
natural  drainage,  tile  lines  should  be  used  to  care  for  the  sur- 
face water.  Light  in  the  barn  should  be  provided  for  at  the 
rate  of  1  square  foot  of  glass  to  25  or  30  square  feet  of  floor 
area.  Controlled  ventilation  is  desirable,  but  since  the  doors 
and  windows  will  be  open  much  of  the  time,  sufficient  air 


CLASSES  OF  FEEDING  BARNS 


29 


circulation  can  usually  be  maintained  without  discomfort 
to  the  stock.  In  the  colder  parts  of  the  country,  however, 
metal  ventilators  and  foul-air  flues  should  be  provided.  Con- 
crete should  be  used  for  floors,  mangers,  alley  floors,  and 
foundation  walls.  The  foundation  should  be  carried  up  to 
the  height  that  the  manure  will  be  allowed  to  accumulate. 
In  the  low-cost  beef  barn  dirt  floors  are  commonly  used  for 
the  pens. 

Classes  of  Feeding  Bams. — Although  there  are  various 
shapes  and  kinds  of  barns  used  for  feeding  stock,  the  common 
ones  may  be  classed  as  either  open-shed  barn,  monitor  barns, 
or  closed  barns. 

The  open-shed  barn  may  be  a  single  shed,  closed  on  three 


Fig.  25. 


■rrorr/TXiR  p^ev/^/a  sak^/' 
-Cross-section  of  a  monitor  shaped  feeding  barn. 


sides,  and  open  to  the  south,  or  it  may  be  L-  or  U-shaped, 
open  on  the  yard.  One-story  sheds  with  one  slope,  gable,  or 
"  combination  "  roof  are  economical,  and  low  in  cost.  Two- 
story  shed  barns  are  open  along  one  side,  but  the  loft  and  roof 
framing  is  similar  to  the  two-story  barns  discussed  elsewhere. 
Shed  barns  are  often  connected  in  the  form  of  an  L  to  the 
general  purpose  or  dairy  barn. 

The  monitor  barn  is  made  wider  than  the  other  types. 
It  consists  of  a  main  part,  16  to  24  feet  wide,  for  hay  storage, 
and  the  hay  space  extends  to  the  ground.  On  two  or  three 
sides  of  the  barn  are  sheds  for  the  stock,  each  14  to  20  feet 
wide.  Hay  is  fed  into  racks  direct  from  the  loft,  and  wide 
doors  are  provided  at  the  ends  of  each  shed. 


30 


BEEF  CATTLE  AND  SHEEP  BARNS 


The  two-story  closed  barn  for  beef  animals  is  the  most 
modern  as  it  harmonizes  with  the  other  barns,  affords  ample 
hay  storage  overhead,  and  can  be  built  with  a  self-supporting 
roof.  The  hay  can  be  fed  through  chutes,  and  silage  is  taken 
to  the  troughs  by  means  of  carriers.  The  feed  alley  is  usually 
built  higher  than  the  pen  floors,  and  the  manure  allowed  to 
accumulate  to  a  depth  of  1  or  2  feet. 

Barns  for  Breeding  Stock.— Pure-bred  animals  raised  for 
foundation  stock  require  more  careful  handling  and  better 
housing  than  feeding  stock.     The  breeding  barn  should  be 


-C0^6< 


Fig.  26. — Floor  plan  of  a  beef  cattle  feeding  barn. 


well  planned  and  of  good  appearance.  Steel  equipment  is 
desirable.  Careful  attention  is  necessary  to  sanitation,  to 
protect  the  health  of  the  herd.  The  breeding  barn  should  be 
a  closed  barn,  with  concrete  floor,  two-story  construction, 
and  pens  for  the  various  classes  of  stock.  Stalls  may  be 
necessary  for  the  cows  with  young  calves.  Cow,  calf,  and 
bull  pens  should  be  provided  as  in  the  dairy  barn,  and  extra 
pens  will  be  needed  for  growing  stock — and  young  bulls. 
The  problems  of  light  and  ventilation  are  similar  to  the  prob- 
lems in  the  dairy  barn.  For  milking  strains  of  beef  cattle, 
the  barn  may  well  be  a  combination  of  dairy  and  beef  barn, 
including  the  essentials  of  both,  as  discussed  elsewhere. 


BARNS  FOR  BABY  BEEF 


31 


Bams  for  Baby  Beef. — On  farms  where  the  raising  of 
calves  and  the  production  of  young  beef  is  practiced,  there 
is  need  for  a  barn  differing  in  some  respects  from  the  types 
discussed  above.     It  must  be  closed  for  protection  in  winter 


fiLl^y   ^TATfiSER 


TIT 


-^V£X^:  v.^-oV^  ^  ^?^ 


l2_ 


Fig.  27. — Cross-section  of  a  stock  feeding  panel. 

months.  Calf  pens  should  be  provided  for  about  eight 
calves  to  each  twelve  cows.  Young  stock  or  fattening  pens 
may  well  be  in  the  same  barn.  Thirty-five  square  feet  of 
space  should  be  provided  for  each  fattening  calf.  Stalls 
should  be  provided  for  the  cows  in  milk,  and  the  stall  row 


Fig.  28. — A  typical  cattle  barn  of  the  Middle  West. 

located  near  to  the  calf  pens.  Baby  beef  barns  where  the 
calves  are  raised  combine  the  essentials  of  the  beef  feeding 
pens,  with  the  stall  arrangement  and  calf  pens  of  the  dairy 
barn.  The  features  of  sanitation  should  be  given  careful 
attention  in  barns  of  this  type. 


32 


BEEF  CATTLE  AND  SHEEP  BARNS 


Sheep  Barns 

Sheep  raising  is  carried  on  under  a  wide  variety  of  conditions 
in  the  various  parts  of  the  country,  and  it  is  not  possible  to 
present  plans  which  will  fit  many  conditions. 


9^FPfi7S':. 


ROO/^ 


J>t'y/d/*e/   r^a  i 


I  j 

J  I 

=.        ,1  I 


/z-o  >  /s-o " 

a  I    \Roc/r 


DRIV^WAV 


rrsD 


BOCA 


FFTf^^     /. 


/Z-O-x/S'O' 


n 


/Z'-O-'^/S'-O' 


-^^'-C- 


ooTLi^fzr'  pz/t/Y'  or-  sheep '3t^Rjr: 
Fig.  29. — Plan  of  a  sheep  barn. 


Essentials    of    Sheep    Shelters. — Dryness    of    quarters    ia 
the   most    important    essential   in    caring   for    sheep.     Sheep 

do  not  require  especially  warm 
quarters,  although  direct  drafts 
should  be  avoided.  Sheep  require 
shade  in  the  summer  season. 
Plenty  of  light  is  essential  in  the 
barn,  for  the  health  of  the  flock. 
One  square  foot  of  glass  area  for 
each  20  feet  of  floor  space  is 
recommended.  Controlled  ventila- 
tion is  necessary  in  the  colder  parts 
of  the  country.  Eight  to  10  square 
inches  of  flue  area  should  be  pro- 
vided for  each  sheep.     Fresh  air  may  be  admitted  through 


Fig.  30. — A  good  sheep  feed 
ing  rack. 


SPACE  REQUIREMENTS 


33 


windows  and  doors  in  moderate  weather,  but  care  should  be 
taken  to  avoid  drafts. 

Space  Requirements. — Each  animal  requires  approximately 
15  square  feet  of  floor  space  in  pens  for  ten  or  more  head. 
Rack  and  trough  space  of  15  to  18  inches  per  sheep  is  needed. 


Fig,  31. — Sheep  feeding  rack. 


Lambing  pens  are  from  12  to  16  square  feet  in  area,  and  a  pen 
4  by  4  feet  is  quite  satisfactory.  Separate  pens  are  required 
for  rams,  and  "  creeps  "  should  be  provided  for  feeding  young 
lambs  separately.  A  room  in  the  sheep  barn,  equipped  with 
stove  and  medicines,  serves  as  a  hospital  room  at  lambing 
time,  and  for  the  shepherd. 

T5rpes  of  Shelters. — Barns  for  the  exclusive  use  of  sheep 
are  not  common  throughout  the 
country.  The  cost  should  be  low, 
as  double  waUs  and  elaborate 
equipment  are  not  necessary.  The 
illustration  (Fig.  29)  shows  a  plan 
of  a  sheep  barn.  Usually  the 
small  flock  will  be  housed  in  a 
shed,  or  part  of  the  general  barn. 
Except  for  the  feeding  equipment, 
it  will  be  found  that  the  require- 
ments of  sheep  shelters  are  similar  to  those  of  the  hog 
house. 


Fig.  32. — Detail  of  a  roller  lamb 
creep. 


34 


BEEF  CATTLE  AND  SHEEP  BARNS 


Equipment  for  Sheep  Raising. — The  most  important  piece 
of  sheep-raising  equipment  is  the  rack  for  hay  and  grain. 


r 

■* a -0  -/ 

1 

o  -/S--0- 

r 

7 

1 

2-V^"                      1 

1 

—  ■ 

/'x-rfJ'                     5 

.^ 

1 
•A 

1 

Z-'xA."                     \ 

1 

.. 

1 

/'>-*'• 

1 

Fig.  33. — Details  of  sheep  hurdles. 

A  good  rack  is  shown  in  Figs.  30  and  31.     The  racks  may- 
serve  as  partitions  in  a  large  pen  if  made  in  the  correct  lengths. ^ 

1  Fig.  32  shows  a  roller  creep  for  young  lambs.  Hurdles  for  making 
small  pens,  or  for  grazing  are  shown  in  the  illustration.  Farmer's  bulletin 
810  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  gives  full  plans  and  details 
of  sheep  shelters  and  equipment. 


CHAPTER  V 
GENERAL-PURPOSE  BARNS 

In  the  foregoing  chapters  the  requirements  for  special- 
purpose  barns  have  been  discussed.  However,  in  the  diversi- 
fied farming  regions  of  the  United  States,  the  dairy  cows, 
horses,  or  beef  cattle  kept  may  not  justify  the  expense  of 
maintaining  a  separate  barn  for  each.  On  such  farms  the 
general-purpose,  or  combination  barn,  providing  for  two  or 
more  kinds  of  stock,  is  the  common  type. 

If  only  two  or  three  cows  are  kept,  and  the  barn  is  built 
primarily  for  horses,  the  barn  is  considered  as  a  horse  barn. 
One  or  two  horses  in  a  large  dairy  barn  do  not  materially 
affect  the  plan  and  construction,  and  the  barn  is  considered 
as  a  dairy  barn.  In  discussing  the  general  barn  it  may  be 
assumed  that  the  two  or  more  classes  of  stock  housed  are  of 
about  equal  importance. 

Essentials  of  General  Barns. — The  essentials  of  the  general 
barn  are  that  it  meet  all  legal  requirements;  each  section 
should  maintain  the  characteristics  of  the  special -purpose 
barn;   and  the  different  classes  of  stock  should  be  separated. 

Legal  Requirements. — In  producing  milk  for  certain  cities 
and  condensories,  and  in  supplying  certified  milk  there  are 
housing  rules  and  ordinances  that  must  be  observed.  In- 
spectors are  sent  out  to  enforce  the  rules.  In  any  case  where 
milk  is  to  be  supplied  under  specified  conditions,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  plan  the  barn  and  arrange  the  stock  to  meet  these 
conditions,  and  produce  sanitary  products.  In  many  cases  all 
the  rules  may  be  met  by  separating  the  stock,  installing  steel 
equipment,  ceihng  the  inside  of  the  stable,  and  removing 
the  manure  to  a  covered  pit.     It  is  much  less  costly  to  pro- 

35 


36  GENERAL-PURPOSE  BARNS 

vide  for  meeting  the  rubs  in  the  original  plan  than  by  expensive 
remodehng  later. 

Characteristics  of  each  Section. — So  far  as  possible  the 
dairy  stable,  horse  stable,  and  beef  cattle  pens,  or  sheep  pens 
in  the  barn  should  retain  all  of  the  essentials  as  discussed  for 
the  separate  barn.  In  the  dairy  regions  of  the  country  the 
new  barns  follow  the  essentials  of  the  modern  dairy  barn, 
with  light,  ventilation,  sanitation,  and  hke  essentials,  although 
the  barn  may  be  used  in  part  for  horses  or  beef  animals.  The 
horse  stable  should  also  be  planned  with  as  much  care  as  if 
it  were  an  entire  barn.     In  the  items  of  appearance,  economy, 


> 

fMJPiS 

i 

i 

F^r-ED     Al-LS-Tr 

OF> 

1       1        1        1        1        1        1        1        1 

1  |cW4-M  MM 

DRIV£^W^A-y 

JiCtfJJ  •  »STW^.  .«3  I 


psrf 


prrr 


Fig.  34. — Floor  plan  of  a  typical  general  farm  barn. 

sanitation,  and  convenience,   which  are  discussed  later,  the 
different  parts  of  the  barn  often  require  similar  treatment. 

Separation  of  Stock. — The  dairy  cows  and  horses  in  the 
same  barn  should  be  separated  by  a  tight  wall,  with  doors  in 
the  allej^s,  which  separation  can  best  be  accompHshed  by 
placing  the  horses  in  one  end  of  the  barn  and  the  cows  in  the 
other.  It  is  not  good  practice  to  put  the  cattle  and  horses 
opposite  each  other,  in  rows,  with  a  common  feed  or  htter 
alley.  In  large  barns  it  may  be  best  to  place  the  cows  in  a 
separate  wing  or  section  of  the  barn.  Feeding  cattle  require 
less  care  and  may  well  be  placed  in  an  open  shed,  attached  to 
the  main  barn. 


SEPARATION  OF  STOCK 


37 


£^«^ 


Fig.  35. — End  elevation  of  a  general-purpose  farm  barn. 


■STRi-L. 


As.j.js-'r' 
=1 


/•i?jrz>   tiX.L^Y- 


C: 


Fig.  36. — Floor  plan  of  a  small  barn. 


38 


GENERAL-PURPOSE  BARNS 


Width  of  Barn. — The  width  of  the  barn  is  determined  by 
the  needs  of  the  class  of  stock  requiring  the  most  width  for 
two  rows  of  stock.  Horses  cannot  be  well  provided  for  in  less 
than  36  feet,  with  three  alleys.  If  feed  alleys  are  omitted  in 
the  horse  stable,  30  feet  is  the  correct  width;  however,  two 
rows  of  cows  need  34  feet  of  width  for  best  spacing.  Since 
each  barn  is  a  special  problem  in  planning,  it  may  be  possible 
to  secure  a  good  plan  for  any  width  between  30  and  38  feet, 
by  properly  arranging  feed  room,  box  stalls,  and  pens. 

Small  Bams. — In  some  parts  of  the  South,  very  Httle 
livestock  is  kept,  and  all  classes  of  stock  must  be  housed  in  one 


t 

I    ■ 

Or/<ftitmf    /\ 

tafy    c»n  n«f  Au  mofa^ 

\       ll 

1              1       1 

1 

r^£j}  A 

LLSY^ 

TO   AroiD    FOSro- 


Fig.  37. — Remodeling  plan  for  a  barn. 


small  structure.  Also,  in  small  towns,  there  is  need  for  barns 
to  accommodate  a  few  head  of  stock.  The  ideal  plan  of  a  gen- 
eral barn  is  one  to  provide  for  12  or  more  cows,  6  horses,  and 
10  to  20  beef  animals.  The  illustration  (Fig.  36)  shows  a  barn 
for  a  few  head  of  stock. 

Remodeling. — There  is  no  more  difficult  problem  in  barn 
planning  work  than  that  of  changing  an  existing  barn  to  meet 
new  conditions,  or  of  installing  new  equipment  in  an  old  barn. 
A  change  in  farming  system  or  the  need  for  more  modern 
equipment  makes  remodeling  desirable  in  many  cases. 

The  first  problem  in  the  old  barn  is  the  tearing  out  of  old 
stalls,  floors,  and  fixtures.  It  is  best  to  remove  the  entire  lot 
of  old  material,  except  the  supporting  posts,  and  if  the  latter 


REMODELING 


39 


can  be  moved,  the  new  posts  can  be  fitted  into  the  plan.  If 
the  posts  are  located  under  a  joint  in  the  girder,  it  is  then  nec- 
essary to  fit  the  equipment  to  the  existing  columns.  Narrow 
alleys,  dark  corners,  and  inconvenient  arrangement  should 
all  be  remedied  at  the  time  the  barn  is  remodeled.     Windows, 


Fig.  38. — A  good  type  ot  general-purpose  barn. 

ventilators,  steel  equipment,  and  concrete  floors  are  the  items 
most  commonly  included  in  the  remodeled  plan. 

In  measuring  up  an  old  barn  for  remodeling,  it  is  essential 
that  all  measurements  be  exact  and  carefully  noted,  for 
equipment  must  be  made  especially  to  fit.  It  is  often  neces- 
sary to  make  stalls  and  allej^s  of  unusual  dimensions  to  fit 
into  existing  buildings. 


CHAPTER  VI 

BARN  EQUIPMENT 

Modern  barn  equipment  is  just  as  important  in  the  handling 
of  livestock  as  the  grain  binder  and  thresher  are  in  the  produc- 
tion of  field  crops.     A  few  years  ago  the  cost  of  mcdern  barn 


Fig.  39. — A  group  of  well-equipped  farm  buildings. 

equipment  was  considered  prohibitive,  and  many  men  in  a 
position  to  advise,  recommended  home-built,  wooden  fixtures 
rather  than  factory-made  equipment. 

The  advantages  of  modern  fixtures  in  the  barn  are  labor 
saving;  increased  production;  better  sanitation;  animal  com- 
fort; and  the  better  appearance  of  the  barn  and  the  stock. 

The  cost  of  complete  equipment  will  be  from  15  to  20 

40 


STANCHIONS 


41 


per  cent  of  the  cost  of  the  barn,  and  the  more  essential  parts 
can  be  secured  for  less  than  this  percentage.  It  is  poor  economy 
to  cut  on  the  cost  of  the  fixtures,  for  by  so  doing  much  of  the 
value  of  the  entire  building  is  lost. 

No  attempt  will  be  made  to  discuss  every  feature  of  modern 


A  neglected  barn. 


equipment.  It  is  sufficient  to  discuss  briefly  the  essential 
pieces  of  equipment  that  have  replaced  the  wood  stanchion, 
the  wood  cupola,  common  watering  trough,  and  the  wheel- 
barrow. 


Fig.  41. — Interior  of  a  modern  dairy  barn — cows  here  face  in. 

Stanchions. — The  term  stanchion  is  used  to  designate 
the  neck  piece  which  holds  the  cow.  The  essential  features 
of  the  stanchion  are  that  it  hold  the  cow  securely,  be  hung 


42  BARN  EQUIPMENT 

flexibly,  be  strong,  simple,  and  easily  handled.  Stanchions 
may  be  of  wood  or  steel,  or  of  steel  with  wood  lining,  to 
prevent  wearing  the  hair  from  the  animal's  neck.  They  are 
made  to  fasten  to  either  wood  or  steel  frames,  and  may  be 
adjusted  for  width  of  neck  space,  and  aligned  forward  and 
back.  Refinement  in  lock,  hinge,  and  adjustment  have  been 
made  .by  manufacturers  in  recent  years. 

Stall  Partitions. — The  standard  material  for  stall  partitions 
is  If -inch  iron  pipe,  bent  to  shape  in  either  a  single  or  triple 
curve.  The  partition  may  be  used  in  connection  with  either 
wood  or  steel  frames.  The  rear  of  the  partition  is  usually 
set  in  the  concrete  floor,  though  it  may  be  fastened  to  a  wood 
floor  by  means  of  a  flange.  The  advantages  of  the  partition 
are  that  it  affords  each  cow  a  definite  amount  of  space, 
prevents  crowding,  and  protects  the  udders  of  the  cows  from 
being  injured  by  neighboring  animals.  The  usual  dimensions 
is  3|  feet  high  and  3^  feet  long. 

Stalls. — Most  new  dairy  barns  have  installations  of  com- 
plete stalls,  consisting  of  stanchion,  partition,  stall  frame, 
and  the  necessary  fittings.  The  stall  should  be  fastened  to 
the  curb  in  such  a  way  that  in  case  of  breakage  new  parts  can 
be  put  in  without  breaking  the  concrete.  Bolts,  plates,  or 
anchors  are  preferred  to  having  the  stall  post  set  in  the  con- 
crete. Stalls  may  be  purchased  in  standard  widths,  pro- 
vided by  all  manufacturers,  or  in  special  widths,  at  no  additional 
cost.  Stalls  for  roimd  barns  must  have  the  top  rail  bent  to 
the  curve  of  the  stall  row.  The  essentials  of  the  complete 
stall  are  that  it  have  tight  fittings,  ample  head  room,  alignment, 
guide  to  direct  the  cow's  head  into  the  stanchion,  and  a  proper 
method  of  fastening  the  stall  to  the  curb. 

Mangers. — The  manger  usually  recommended  is  the  con- 
crete manger  as  discussed  in  Chapter  II.  For  feeding  indi- 
vidually the  manger  division  is  desirable.  They  are  made 
of  heavy  galvanized  steel,  cut  to  the  shape  of  the  manger, 
the  divisions  being  made  to  raise,  for  cleaning  the  manger. 
Complete  steel  mangers  are  made  to  set  on  a  concrete  base; 
they  are  built  in  sections  of  four  or  five  mangers,  held  in  place 


PEN  AND  BOX  STALLS  43 

by  a  spring,  which  also  holds  the  manger  in  the  raised  position. 
The  manger  parts  of  steel  should  be  of  heavy  gauge,  galvanized 
steel,  and  firmly  braced  with  bar  iron.  Manger  divisions  in 
the  concrete  manger  are  considered  best. 

Pens  and  Box  Stalls. — Pens  are  always  made  in  special 
sizes  to  fit  the  available  space,  and  are  fitted  with  the  necessary 
gates,  mangers,  feed  boxes,  and  stanchions.  Steel  pens  for 
all  classes  of  stock  are  preferable  to  wood,  because  of  the  better 
appearance,  light,  sanitation,  and  strength.  Pens  are  made 
in  panels,  and  are  anchored  to  the  concrete  curb  at  intervals 
of  4  to  6  feet.  The  paneHng  is  made  from  iron  pipe  or  steel 
tubing,  reinforced  at  corners,  and  at  intervals  in  the  panel  with 


fii^^ 


Fig.  42. — Metal  box  stalls  and  pens. 

extra  heavy  posts.  Dust-proof  fittings,  smooth  surfaces,  and 
rigid  construction  are  necessary.  Curbing  for  dairy  pens  is 
made  6  inches  wide  and  6  inches  high. 

Watering  Cups. — Investigation  among  a  large  number  of 
users  indicate  that  the  use  of  a  watering  system  will  increase 
the  production  of  milk  2  to  3  pounds  per  day  in  the  winter 
season  over  the  common  methods  of  watering.  Some  dairymen 
state  that  they  prefer  the  cups  to  any  other  piece  of  equipment. 
High-producing  cows  will  drink  as  much  as  200  pounds  of 
water  per  day.  There  are  two  types  of  watering  systems  for 
the  dairy  barn,  the  gravity  and  pressure  systems,  the  former 
outfit  requiring  a  head  of  water  of  only  a  few  feet.  The  level 
in  all  the  cups  is  maintained  by  gravity  and  regulated  by  a 


44 


BARN  EQUIPMENT 


float  valve  in  a  small  supply  tank.  The  pressure  system 
has  a  valve  in  each  cup,  which  is  opened  as  the  animal  drinks, 
water  being  supplied  under  pressure  to  each  stall.  The 
advantage  of  the  gravity  system  is  its  simplicity  and  ease  of 
handhng.  In  the  pressure  system  fresher  water  is  supplied 
and  no  regulating  tank  is  necessary. 

Litter  and  Feed  Carriers. — Farmers  have  realized  the 
labor-saving  features  of  litter-  and  feed-carrying  machinery, 
and  most  new  barns  provide  for  their  installation.  The 
trolley  outfits  consist  of  overhead  track  installation  throughout 


Fig.  43. — Showing  stalls  with  individual  drinking  cup  equipment. 


the  litter  and  feed  alleys,  and  to  manure  pit  and  silo.  By 
means  of  the  carriers,  only  one  handling  of  the  feed  and  manure 
is  necessary.  With  the  litter  carrier  the  manure  is  likely  to 
be  taken  directly  to  the  spreader,  or  at  least  farther  from  the 
barn,  and  better  sanitation  results. 

The  litter  carriers  in  common  use  are  of  three  types:  the 
small  outfit  with  rod  track,  the  combination  type,  and  the 
sohd-track  carrier.  The  rod  outfits  are  recommended  for 
small  barns  and  low-cost  installations.  The  action  of  the 
carrier  is  automatic,  as  it  can  be  given  a  push  at  the  door, 
and  will  dump  and  return  to  the  barn.     The  combination 


LITTER  AND  FEED  CARRIERS  45 

carriers  have  a  solid  track  inside  the  barn,  and  rod  track  in 
the  yard,  combining  the  raising  and  lowering  features  with  the 
automatic  action  in  dumping.  The  solid-track  outfit  is 
recommended  for  all  large  barns.  This  carrier  is  not  automatic, 
but  is  more  convenient  to  handle  in  the  barn,  and  has  a  greater 
capacity.  The  small  carriers  have  a  capacity  of  4  bushels, 
the  combination  from  5  to  6  bushels,  and  the  solid-track 
carriers  hold  from  10  to  12  bushels  of  manure. 

The  carrier  tubs  should  be  made  of  heavy,  galvanized 
steel,  well  braced.  The  hoist  should  be  easy  working  and 
positive.     The  track  should  be  made  to  carry  a  heavy  load. 


Fig.  44. — ^A  litter  carrier  from  a  hog  pen. 

and  is  usually  fastened  at  every  joist.  The  track  should  be 
kept  level,  and  set  to  allow  the  wheels  to  clear  all  obstructions. 

The  methods  of  supporting  the  track  in  the  yard  are 
wood  posts,  steel  posts,  steel  arches,  and  swinging  boom. 
The  cost  is  in  the  order  given.  The  crane  or  boom  has  the 
advantage  in  that  it  can  be  turned  through  a  large  angle,  or 
against  the  barn,  leaving  the  yard  clear.  Care  should  be 
taken  not  to  obstruct  a  necessary  drive  with  the  posts  and 
braces. 

Feed  carriers  are  made  on  the  same  general  principles 
as  the  litter  carriers,  and  operate  on  the  same  type  of  track. 
The  usual  capacity  is  12  to  15  bushels  of  silage  or  grain. 
Feed  carts  or  trucks  are  less  expensive,  and  can  be  taken  to 
any  part  of  the  barn,  without  track.     Some  feed  trucks  are 


46 


BARN  EQUIPMENT 


made  to  run  on  the  floor  and  are  equipped  with  rubber  tires 
and  roller  bearings. 

Special  carriers  are  made  for  farm  buildings  for  a  variety 
of  purposes,  among  which  are  harness  carriers,  milk-can 
carriers,  swill  carriers,  and  hoists  for  machinery  or  other 
heavy  objects. 

Ventilators. — The  objects  and  principles  of  ventilation 
are  discussed  in  Chapter  XI.  Metal  cupolas  are  preferable 
to  wood,  on  account  of  permanence,  appearance,  and  effici- 
ency. The  metal  ventilators  on  the  market  aid  the  outflow 
of  foul  air,  and  prevent  the  entrance  of  rain  and  snow;  most 
of  them  are  bird  proof. 

Window  shields,  intake  registers,  and  adjusters  are  neces- 


Fig.  45.— a  group  of  modern  farm  buildings. 


sary  parts  of  the  ventilating  system,  and  good  ones  can  be 
purchased.  There  is  also  on  the  market  a  complete  ventilating 
system,  consisting  of  fresh-  and  foul-air  flues,  registers,  and 
cupolas. 

Horse  Bam  Equipment. — The  special  fixtures  for  the 
horse  barn  include  harness  carriers,  harness  hooks,  feed  boxes, 
hay  racks,  box  stalls,  and  guard  rails.  In  addition  to  these 
items  the  usual  carrier  and  ventilator  equipment  is  needed. 

The  advantages  of  metal  equipment  over  wood  in  the 
horse  barn  are,  appearance,  cleanliness,  better  sanitary 
features,  and  greater  permanency.  Box  stalls  of  steel  are 
usually  made  of  concrete,  to  a  height  of  about  4  feet,  and 


FEEDING  BARN  EQUIPMENT 


47 


paneling  placed  above  the  concrete  base.  The  stalls  may  be 
of  wood  or  concrete,  as  discussed  in  Chapter  III,  and  are 
topped  by  a  guard  rail  24  or  26  inches  high;  the  rails  are  about 
6  feet  long,  and  made  with  an  ogee  curve  at  the  rear. 

Feeding  Bam  Equipment. — At  one  time  the  first  cost  of 
barn  equipment   was   considered   prohibitive  even  for   dairy 


Fig.  46. — A  large  dairy  plan. 


herds.  At  the  present  time,  not  only  most  dairy  barns,  but 
many  feeding  barns  are  being  completely  equipped.  For 
pure-bred  stock,  and  breeding  herds  of  cattle,  sheep,  and 
hogs  the  use  of  steel  pens  and  other  equipment  is  increasing. 
The  principal  material  is  the  paneling  used  for  cow,  calf, 
bull,  hog,  and  sheep  pens.  Stock  racks,  feeding  troughs  and 
removable  panels  are  also  being  used. 


CHAPTER  VII 
ESSENTIALS   OF  BARNS 

The  essential  points  in  the  planning  and  construction  of  barns 
may  be  considered  as  falling  into  two  groups.  In  one  group 
are  the  essential  points  of  the  special-purpose  barn  to  make  it 
serve  that  special  purpose.  There  is  another  group  of  essen- 
tials that  are  fundamental,  and  should  characterize  every 
barn,  no  matter  what  the  purpose.  It  is  the  purpose  of  this 
chapter  to  discuss  these  general  points. 

Four  Necessary  Features. — All  good  barns  have  four 
features,  without  which  they  fail  to  become  either  ideal  or 
even  good  barns  for  the  practical  farmer.  They  are,  appear- 
ance, sanitation,  convenience,  and  economy  of  construction. 
The  practical  man  might  neglect  the  feature  of  appearance, 
and  still  make  the  barn  pay  well  on  the  investment.  Barns 
that  were  unsanitary  in  every  respect  have  produced  products 
that  passed  high  tests,  due  to  a  vast  amount  of  labor.  If  the 
barn  is  not  convenient  the  cost  of  additional  labor  will  offset 
many  times  the  cost  of  changing  the  plan.  The  rich  man 
who  farms  as  a  pastime  and  who  spends  thousands  of  dollars 
per  animal  to  secure  a  fine  barn  may  be  repaid  in  satisfaction, 
but  he  will  reaUze  no  interest  on  his  investment.  Most 
assuredly,  if  all  four  of  these  essentials  were  not  considered, 
the  barn  might  well  be  torn  down. 

Appearance. — A  building  of  good  appearance  does  not 
cost  any  more  to  build  than  an  ugly  structure.  If  the  best 
ideas  of  window  location,  ventilation,  sanitation,  and  pro- 
portion are  carried  out,  the  only  additional  cost  of  a  good 
appearance  is  some  forethought  in  planning. 

With  the  exception  of, the  farm-house,  the  barn  is  the  most 

48 


APPEARANCE 


49 


expensive  building,  and  has  the  most  prominent  place  in  the 
farmstead  group.  As  we  learn  to  build  with  permanent 
materials  and  properly  care  for  our  farm  buildings  the  barn 
will  last  for  fifty  to  sixty  years,  or  even  for  a  century.  The 
additional  cost  for  good  appearance,  if  there  should  be  any 
cost,  will  amount  to  a  small  sum  when  distributed  over  the  hfe 


i[^_^ _^ _^ ^!^^'I^^if**3i [ . __. 

Fig.  47. — Side  elevation  of  a  typical  small  dairy  barn. 


of  the  structure.    The  selling  value  of  the  farm  with  attractive 
barns  will  often  return  the  extra  cost  many  times  over. 

For  good  appearance,  the  tops  of  all  doors  and  windows 
in  the  first  story  should  be  on  the  level.  Large  windows, 
possibly  in  groups  of  two  or  three,  are  better  than  small 
single  windows.  Dormer  windows  often  serve  to  break  up 
large  space  of  roof,  and  they  Ught  the  loft  as  well.  The  roof 
should  be  in  the  proper  shape  and  proportions — a  point  fully 


50  ESSENTIALS  OF  BARNS 

considered  elsewhere.  The  projection  of  the  eaves,  or  the 
"  overhang/'  should  be  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  building. 

There  are  several  building  materials  which  might  be 
combined  to  enhance  the  appearance  of  the  barn.  Shingles, 
stucco,  and  lap  siding,  while  not  generally  used  as  a  barn 
covering,  might  well  be  used  to  advantage  in  msmy  cases. 

Paint  on  farm  buildings  is  primarily  for  the  protection  of 
the  wood.  Careful  selection  of  harmonious  colors  would  do 
much  to  improve  the  appearance,  however.  Too  much  red 
paint  does  not  add  to  the  farmstead.  At  all  times  large  bare 
surfaces,  odd  roof  shapes,  and  '*  gingerbread  "  effects  should 
be  avoided. 

Sanitation. — The  essential  of  sanitation  has  to  do  with 


»    f*! 


H^ 


Fig.  48. — Interior  of  a  small  sanitary  barn. 

all  points  of  plan  and  construction  which  aid  in  the  production 
of  better,  cleaner  products,  healthier  stock,  and  better  living 
conditions.  Sanitary  laws  have  been  enforced  by  many  com- 
munities in  an  effort  to  secure  better  products.  The  higher 
prices,  labor  saving,  and  like  results  have  led  many  farmers 
to  build  sanitary  barns  of  their  own  accord  as  sanitation  is  the 
best  preventive  of  transmittible  diseases  such  as  tuberculosis, 
cholera,  and  typhoid!  The  items  of  lighting,  ventilation, 
drainage,  modern  equipment,  and  smooth  surfaces  are  all 
considered  elsewhere  in  the  text. 

Convenience. — There  is  no  need  to  advance  reasons  as 
to  why  the  barn  should  be  made  convenient.  Scarcity  and 
high  prices  for  labor  compel  convenience  of  plan  for  handhng 


ECONOMY  OF  CONSTRUCTION  51 

the  work.  On  every  farm  there  is  need  for  many  hours  of 
barn  work  each  month,  and  even  small  mistakes  will  cause 
considerable  extra  work.  In  almost  every  case  a  careful 
study  of  the  proposed  plan  is  all  that  is  needed  to  secure 
convenience. 

Harness  rooms,  silo  location,  width  of  alleys,  location 
of  doors,  and  arrangement  of  stall  rows  all  have  an  influence 
in  the  convenience  of  the  plan.  One  of  the  best  pieces  of 
advice  to  secure  a  convenient  barn  is  to  "  build  the  barn  on 
paper  first." 

Economy  of  Construction. — Economy  of  construction  con- 
sists in  building  for  the  purpose  for  which  the  structure  is 
intended.  For  the  production  of  certified  milk,  the  owner 
is  justified  in  building  a  high-priced  barn,  with  expensive 
equipment.  The  breeder  of  fancy  stock  will  soon  pay  for  a 
good  barn  by  the  increased  selling  price  of  animals  in  good 
health,  and  well  shown.  The  feeder  of  range  stock  cares  only 
for  shelter,  and  an  expensive  barn  would  not  yield  additional 
returns.  The  Southern  tenant  who  has  only  one  cow,  a  mule, 
and  a  hog  has  no  need  for  more  than  a  mere  shelter. 

An  expensive  building  is  good  economy  if  it  is  for  the 
purpose  of  demonstrating  good  methods  or  of  selhng  good 
stock.  The  type  of  farming  and  the  value  of  the  products 
help  to  determine  the  amount  of  the  investment. 

A  good  plan  of  the  barn  will  help  to  keep  its  cost  down. 
Framing  can  be  reduced  to  a  point  consistent  with  strength; 
permanent  materials  may  help  to  lower  the  cost  when  con- 
sidered over  a  period  of  years;  available  materials  mean  less 
freight,  shorter  hauls,  and  lower  prices,  when  compared  to 
material  that  must  be  shipped  a  long  distance.  The  width  of 
the  barn  and  the  spacing  of  trusses  and  girders  should  be  such 
that  standard  sizes  of  lumber  may  be  used.  Stock  lengths 
and  common  sizes  of  lumber  are  cheaper  than  special  material. 
Stock  sizes  of  doors  and  windows  are  usually  just  as  good  as 
special  sizes,  and  cost  less. 

Undesirable  Uses  of  Bams. — In  some  parts  of  the  country 
there  is  Uttle  need  for  a  barn  to  shelter  only  a  few  head  of 


52  ESSENTIALS  OF  BARNS 

stock  on  the  farm;  and  poultry,  hogs,  farm  machines,  and  feeds 
are  all  placed  in  the  same  building.  This  practice  should  be 
discouraged  in  most  cases.  For  housing  machinery,  tractors, 
and  automobiles,  a  separate  building  is  always  to  be  recom- 
mended, as  the  fumes  from  the  manure  have  a  bad  effect  on 
the  finish  of  the  machines.  The  presence  of  gasoline  and  oils, 
and  the  operation  of  an  engine  in  the  barn  is  a  dangerous  fire 
risk,  and  insurance  companies  seriously  object  to  the  practice. 
The  concentration  of  a  large  amount  of  stock,  feed  and 
machinery  in  one  building  would  cause  a  serious  loss  in  case 
of  fire.  Farm  poultry  in  the  barn  is  another  practice  that 
should  be  discouraged.  Few  flocks  are  entirely  free  from 
vermin,  and  for  that  reason  should  be  kept  away  from  the 
stock.  Eggs  are  destroyed,  chickens  are  killed  by  the  stock, 
and  droppings  are  scattered  about  the  barn. 

Common  Features  of  Bams. — Every  barn,  regardless  of 
purpose,  has  certain  problems  in  common  with  other  barns 
which  are  worthy  of  consideration.  Among  them  are  doors, 
windows,  stairs,  and  hay  chutes. 

Doors. — Doorways  through  which  stock  must  pass  should 
be  made  at  least  4  feet  wide;  feed-alley  doors  are  made  as 
narrow  as  3  feet  6  inches;  driveway  doors  should  be  8  feet 
wide  to  allow  the  passage  of  wagon  or  spreader.  The  height 
of  doors  in  the  first  story  should  be  from  7  feet  8  inches  to  8 
feet  6  inches.  The  exact  height  will  depend  on  the  ceiling 
height,  as  the  door  frame  should  be  built  directly  under  the 
second  floor  joists.  Doors  for  loaded  hay  wagons  should 
have  a  height  of  12  feet  or  more,  and  a  width  of  10  feet.  Hay 
doors  through  which  the  hay  is  taken  by  means  of  forks  or 
slings  are  made  10  feet  wide  by  12  feet  high.  Doors  for  hand 
pitching  of  hay  should  be  at  least  3  by  4  feet.  Doors  through 
which  grain  is  to  be  shoveled  are  made  2 J  by  3  feet. 

For  openings  of  4  feet  or  less  the  doors  should  be  hinged, 
as  the  hinged  door  can  be  better  fitted,  and  is  less  expensive. 
The  hinged  door  may  be  made  in  two  sections,  so  the  top 
half  can  be  opened  for  ventilation.  Sliding  doors  are  more 
generally  used  for  wide  openings,  as  the  hinged  door  more 


WINDOWS 


63 


than  4  feet  across  tends  to  sag,  and  is  hard  to  handle  in  windy 
weather.  Well-protected,  bird-proof  track,  and  substantial 
hangers  are  desirable  with  the  sliding  doors. 

The  best  method  of  making  hay  doors  is  to  divide  the 
door  in  the  center  and  shde  it  outward  and  downward,  parallel 
with  the  roof  slope;  it  is  counterbalanced  by  weights.  Another 
method  of  fastening  the  hay  door  is  to  hinge  it  at  the  bottom, 
a  style  susceptible  of  being  broken  by  the  wind.  A  third 
method  is  to  counterbalance  the  door  with  weights  and  shde 


Fig.  49. — Detail  of  small 
barn  door. 


Fig.  50. — Detail  of  hay  door  for  barn- 
view  from  inside. 


it  straight  downward  in  a  groove.     In  this  case  there  is  hkely 
to  be  trouble  due  to  warping. 

Windows. — Probably  the  best  type  of  window  for  all 
barns  is  the  single-sash  window,  hinged  or  grooved  at  the 
bottom,  and  opening  inward  from  the  top.  The  common 
size  is  a  9-Hght  sash,  three  panes  wide  and  three  high.  The 
glass  size  is  from  8  by  12  inches  to  9  by  14  inches.  This  gives 
a  sash  approximately  2  feet  6  inches  wide  and  4  feet  long.  A 
comparatively  high  window  is  more  efficient  than  a  low  one, 


54 


ESSENTIALS  OF  BARNS 


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Fig.  51. — Illustrating  influence  of  height  of  window  upon  amount  of 
direct  light  admitted. 


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Fig.  52. — Details  of  a  barn  window. 


STAIRS 


55 


since  there  Is  a  smaller  proportion  of  light  cut  off  by  the 
walls. 

The  windows  should  be  framed  into  the  wall  at  the  under 
side  of  the  joists.  Metal  shields  are  sometimes  provided  to 
deflect  the  air  upward,  and  prevent  drafts  directly  on  the 
stock.  Ventilating  windows  should  not  be  depended  on  to 
provide  all  of  the  necessary  fresh  air  in  winter. 


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Fig.  53. 


The  best  appearance  is  secured  in  dormer  windows  by 
making  them  wide  and  low. 

Stairs. — In  many  plans  there  is  no  provision  made  for 
a  stairway  and  the  only  way  to  the  loft  is  by  way  of  a  ladder. 
A  stairway  takes  up  but  very  little  room,  and  is  safer  and  more 
convenient  than  a  ladder.  The  width  of  the  stairs  is  2|  to 
3  feet,  and  a  rise  of  8  inches  and  a  tread  of  9  inches  are  desirable. 
There  should  be  not  less  than  7  feet  of  headroom  at  any  part 
of  the  stair.     Care  should  be  taken  that  no  vital  part  of  the 


56  ESSENTIALS  OF  BARNS 

frame  is  weakened  by  the  opening.  A  hood  or  framework 
built  over  the  stair  opening  into  the  loft  will  prevent  it  from 
being  closed  over  when  the  loft  is  being  filled. 

Hay  Chutes. — Hay  chutes  should  open  directly  into  the 
feed  alley,  or  into  a  cross  alley  connecting  with  the  feed  way. 
If  the  chutes  come  in  the  center  of  the  barn,  the  framework 
around  the  opening  is  carried  to  within  about  14  feet  of  the 
roof,  in  order  that  a  sling  load  of  hay  will  pass  over  it.  Boards 
placed  over  the  top  of  the  chute  prevents  it  from  being  filled 
with  hay  from  the  slings.  The  framework  may  be  open, 
simply  to  keep  a  clear  opening  to  the  stable,  or  it  may  be 
covered  tight,  and  doors  provided  at  intervals.  The  chutes 
are  sometimes  carried  to  the  stable  floor,  and  closed  off,  to 
keep  dust  and  chaff  out  of  the  stable. 

Sometimes  the  hay  chute  is  used  for  a  ventilating  shaft, 
but  this  is  not  recommended,  as  the  location  is  wrong,  and  the 
foul  air  flue  should  have  no  openings  in  the  loft.  It  is  well  to 
close  the  hay  chute  from  the  stable  by  a  tight-fitting  door 
when  not  in  use,  as  the  ventilation  is  disturbed  by  the  opening 
in  the  ceiling.  The  proper  size  for  the  hay  chute  is  3  feet 
square.  One  chute  should  be  provided  for  each  ten  or  twelve 
head  of  stock. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
CLASSIFICATION   OF  BARNS 

Barns  differ  with  respect  to  use,  shape,  height,  style  of 
roof,  and  the  material  used  in  the  construction.  For  a  full 
understanding  of  the  subject,  it  is  necessary  to  classify  barns 
according  to  their  various  characteristics,  and  study  the 
important  points  of  each  classification. 

Use  of  Bam. — The  use  to  which  a  barn  is  put  refers  to  the 
special  purpose  for  which  it  was  built.  According  to  use, 
then,  barns  are  classed  as  dairy,  horse,  beef  cattle,  sheep,  and 
general-purpose  barns.  These  different  uses  have  been  dis- 
cussed fully  in  the  preceding  chapters. 

Shape. — In  shape  the  barn  may  be  classed  under  one  of 
the  following  heads:  square,  rectangular,  L-^  T-,  or  U-shaped, 
and  round. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  barn  planned  to  accommodate 
two  rows  of  stock  placed  lengthwise  was  the  best.  The 
square  barn  is  economical,  and  if  this  shape  permits  of  a  good 
floor  plan  there  is  no  objection  to  the  square  form.  For 
barns  longer  than  34  or  36  feet  there  is  no  advantage  in  increas- 
ing the  width  to  correspond  to  the  length,  as  the  loss  in  con- 
venience and  economy  of  arrangement  offsets  any  economy 
of  construction. 

The  rectangular  barn  of  sufficient  width  to  accommodate 
two  rows  of  stock  is  the  most  common  shape,  and  is  usually 
to  be  preferred  to  any  other  shape.  The  length  can  then  be 
made  to  suit  any  condition,  or  existing  barns  may  be  extended, 
if  the  herds  are  much  increased.  There  is  no  limit  to  the 
length  of  the  rectangular  barn.  The  authors  have  designed 
barns  150  feet  long  which  have  given  good  service. 

57 


58  CLASSIFICATION  OF  BARNS 

Lighting,  ventilation,  and  floor-plan  arrangement  can  be 
worked  out  to  best  advantage  in  the  34-  or  36-foot  barn.  Most 
standard  plans  for  framing  are  for  barns  of  these  common 
widths,  and  the  members  of  the  frame  are  designed  to  carry 
the  loads  that  come  on  about  a  36-foot  span.  The  practical 
hmit  of  the  self-supporting  roof  of  plank  construction  is  42 
feet.  The  34-  to  42-foot  barn  permits  of  economical  handling 
of  hay  in  the  loft,  as  the  entire  mow  can  be  filled  from  one  Hne 
of  track,  and  practically  without  hand  pitching. 

The  L-shaped  barn  is  desirable  for  conditions  found  on 
many  general  farms.  The  barn  is  usually  placed  to  form  a 
sheltered  yard  in  the  angle  of  the  two  parts.  The  main  part 
should  serve  for  the  principal  stock,  the  ell  being  used  as  a 
feeding  barn,  cattle  shed,  or  as  storage  space.  To  avoid 
interference  with  light  and  ventilation,  the  main  barn  should 
be  placed  with  the  long  axis  north  and  south,  and  the  wing 
attached  at  the  north  end,  on  either  side. 

The  T-shaped  barn  is  the  common  arrangement  for  a  two- 
story  feed  and  hay  barn,  and  a  one-story  stable.  One  section 
msLY  be  built  to  meet  the  requirements  for  a  time,  and  the 
other  added  as  the  herds  are  increased.  The  one-story 
stable  is  low  in  cost,  and  except  for  hay  storage,  is  quite 
efficient. 

The  U-shaped  barn  is  usually  associated  with  extensive 
stock-raising  interests,  and  as  commonly  built,  consists  of 
two  separate  barn  units,  parallel  to  each  other,  and  connected 
by  a  feed  storage,  passage,  or  shelter  wall.  The  sheltered 
yard  so  formed  is  valuable.  For  the  average  farm  this  type 
is  not  practicable. 

Round  Bams. — Although  the  use  of  the  round  barn  is  not 
general,  almost  every  man  who  plans  to  build  has  the  round 
barn  plan  brought  to  him  for  consideration.  Because  of  the 
several  important  points  both  in  favor  of  and  against  this  style 
of  barn,  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  will  be  covered 
quite  fully. 

The  round  barn  incloses  the  most  area  with  a  given  length 
of  wall,  for  the  same  reason  that  a  circle  encloses  the  most 


ROUND  BARNS 


69 


area;  since  there  is  less  exposure  than  in  the  other  shapes; 
the  barn  is  warmer;  round  construction  is  the  strongest  type; 
there  are  no  corners  for  the  carpenter  or  mason  to  construct, 
so  there  is  time  saved  in  the  construction.  The  usual  plan 
includes  a  silo  in  the  center  of  the  barn,  which  makes  feeding 
convenient  when  the  stock  faces  the  center.  Silage  will  not 
freeze,  because  it  is 
protected  by  two  walls. 
Hay  capacity  is  in- 
creased in  the  round 
barn  as  compared  with 
the  rectangular. 

There  are,  however, 
certain  disadvantages 
in  the  use  of  the  round 
barn,  considered  in  con- 
nection with  the  other 
types.  To  offset  the 
saving  in  wall,  the 
round  barn  wastes 
some  space;  since  the 
stock  is  placed  in  a 
row,  around  a  circle, 
there  is  waste  space  behind  the  stock,  if  they  are  afforded 
sufficient  room  in  front.  Less  wall  space  means  less  light, 
and  furthermore,  the  direct  light  is  not  effective  over  a  wide 
space  of  wall  at  any  one  time.  Light  must  reach  30  feet 
from  any  one  window  to  the  center  of  a  60-foot  barn,  compared 
to  18  feet  in  the  36-foot  rectangular  barn.  Ventilation  is 
harder  to  handle  in  the  round  barn,  since  the  foul  air  flues 
should  be  carried  up  from  the  side  walls,  and  empty  into 
one  ventilator  at  the  center. 

Builders  in  most  places  are  not  familiar  with  round  barns, 
with  the  result  that  time  and  material  are  often  wasted. 

The  silo  in  the  center  of  the  round  barn  is  inconvenient  to 
fill.  Spoiled  silage  when  thrown  out  causes  objectionable 
odors  in  the  building.     The  result  of  placing  the  silo  in  the 


Fig.  54. — Floor  plan  of  a  round  barn. 


60 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  BARNS 


center  of  the  barn  is  to  surround  it  with  two  walls,  instead  of 
only  one,  and  the  protection  afforded  costs  more  than  it  is 
worth. 

A  large  round  barn  is  more  economical  than  barns  of  small 
diameter.  But  the  larger  the  barn,  the  more  difficult  becomes 
the  lighting,  ventilation,  and  satisfactory  arrangement. 

Height  of  Bams. — Barns  are  referred  to  as  one-story 
barns,  story  and  a  half,  and  two,  or  even  three  stories  high. 
In  some  sections  also,  the  basement  barn  is  common. 

The  one-story  barn  is  simply  a  stable,  without  feed  storage 
above,  and  may  be  used  as  a  wing  in  connection  with  a 
storage  barn,  or  as  a  separate  building.  The  one-story 
barn  is  usually  the  lowest  in  cost  of  any  of  the  heights,  but  not 


orr£- \sro/sV'  •  arrjs&oy^s-^ALF'Srroipr''  •  two •  sto/s^ • 

Fig.  55. — Relative  heights  of  barns, 


necessarily  the  most  economical,  as  the  same  roof  and  founda- 
tion might  be  utiUzed  in  building  additional  hay  space.  The 
one-story  barn  is  usually  of  the  gable-roof  or  shed-roof  type. 

The  story  and  a  haff  barn  provides  a  certain  amount  of 
hay  space,  the  side  walls  above  the  stable  being  not  more  than 
6  feet  high.  If  a  gambrel  roof  is  used,  the  lower  rafters  may 
come  just  over  the  loft-floor  joists.  This  type  of  barn  is  used 
if  only  a  limited  amount  of  hay  storage  is  wanted. 

The  two-story  barn  is  the  most  economical  and  the  most 
common  on  the  general  farm.  The  walls  are  from  8  to  18  feet 
above  the  first  story.  The  self-supporting  plank  frame  roof 
is  recommended  for  best  results  in  hay  storage. 

Three-story  barns  are  not  common,  and  for  average  con- 


ROOF  SHAPE 


61 


ditions  have  very  little  to  recommenfl  them.  If  stock  is  kept 
on  the  second  floor,  it  is  necessary  to  make  -the  floor  of  plank 
or  reinforced  concrete,  waterproofed.  The  services  of  an 
engineer  are  needed  to  figure  the  reinforcing,  and  the  problem 
of  waterproofing  is  somewhat  diflficult  and  expensive. 

The  basement  barn  has  the  first-story  walls  built  of 
masonry,  and  all  or  a  part  of  the  stable  walls  are  below  the 
level  of  the  ground;  it  has  the  advantage  of  protection  from 
the  wind  and  cold,  and  it  is  also  easy  to  drive  into  the  second 
story.    The  basement  barn,  however,  is  hard  to  light  and  ven- 


••SAT/fPlPa     Ol»--KOOF^ 


Fig.  56. — Types  of  roof  shapes. 


Fig.  57. — Illustrating  hay  storage 
space  m  under  roofs  of  different 
shapes. 


tilate,  and  the  walls  are  likely  to  be  damp.  The  best  results 
are  secured  with  this  type  if  at  least  4  feet  of  the  lower  wall 
is  above  the  grade  line. 

Roof  Shape. — There  are  some  common  roof  shapes  that 
are  not  understood  by  the  average  student  or  builder,  and  a 
few  types  are  incorrectly  named.  The  object  of  this  discus- 
sion is  to  point  out  the  common  roof  shapes,  and  the  relative 
merits  of  each. 

The  shed  roof  is  a  single-slope  roof,  simply  constructed ; 
it  is  used  principally  for  cheap  buildings,  or  for  a  ''  lean-to  " 
in  connection  with  another  building.  The  pitch  is  low,  usually 
not  over  one-third  pitch  being  used. 

The  gable  roof  is  the  common  two-slope  roof,  widely  used 


62  CLASSIFICATION  OF  BARNS 

on  houses,  hog  houses,  garages  and  the  Hke;  it  may  be  made 
attractive,  and  is  best  for  many  uses.  Few  modern  barns 
have  the  gable  roof,  as  wide  buildings  require  purlins  and 
braces  in  the  loft,  and  the  hay  storage  is  less  than  in  the  newer 
roof  tj^pes.     The  common  pitches  range  from  J  to  J. 

The  gambrel  roof  which  has  two  slopes  on  each  side  is 
undoubtedly  the  most  practical  for  the  farm  barn.  The  lower 
set  of  rafters  is  set  at  about  60°  with  the  horizontal  and  the 
upper  slope  is  about  30°.  The  gambrel  roof  is  easily  made 
self-supporting j  affording  an  unobstructed  loft.  The  most 
difficult  problem  in  connection  with  the  gambrel  roof  is  to 
secure  good  proportions.  The  method  to  be  followed  is  fully 
outlined  in  Chapter  X. 

The  Gothic,  vaulted,  or  arched  roof  is  increasing  in  popu- 
larity for  use  on  farm  barns,  as  having  no  obstructions  in  the 
loft,  and  the  entire  strength  is  secured  by  the  arch  construction. 
The  cost  is  higher  than  for  the  other  types,  as  the  labor  and 
material  necessary  to  secure  the  smooth  curve  make  it  more 
expensive.  The  shape  of  the  roof  may  vary  from  nearly  flat 
\ip  to  a  height  equal  to  about  |  the  width  of  the  barn.  The 
higher  shapes  afford  the  most  hay  storage  and  are  easier  to 
construct. 

The  monitor  barn  roof  results  from  the  higher  roof  on  the 
center  or  main  part  of  the  barn,  and  sheds  on  either  side.  It 
is  used  in  dairy  barns  in  the  warmer  climates  as  the  upper 
portion  collects  the  warm  air,  and  aids  in  cooling  the  barn. 
For  this  reason  the  monitor  barn  is  not  recommended  for  dairy 
cows  in  the  colder  sections.  For  beef  cattle  barns,  the  monitor 
barn  is  satisfactory,  if  the  main  portion  is  used  for  hay  storage, 
and  the  sheds  for  the  stock. 

Materials  of  Construction. — Locally,  at  least,  barns  are 
often  referred  to  by  the  material  from  which  they  are  con- 
structed. The  materials  in  common  use  are  wood,  stone, 
cement  blocks,  monolithic  concrete,  and  hollow  tile,  and  the 
available  materials  should  to  some  extent  determine  the  kind 
to  use.  Often  a  combination  of  two  or  three  materials  can  be 
made  to  good  advantage.  .  In  selecting  the  material  the  com- 


STANDARD  BARNS  63 

parative  advantages  of  appearance,  sanitation,  permanence, 
economy,  and  first  cost  should  be  considered.  The  kind  of 
materials  used  in  other  buildings  in  the  groups  should  also  be 
considered. 

Standard  Bams. — Some  attempts  have  been  made  to 
standardize  barn  plans,  for  various  purposes.  Some  popular 
house  and  barn  plans  have  been  used  many  times,  and  with 
success.  If  it  were  possible  to  have  a  standard  for  each  type 
of  barn  the  farmer  would  need  and  so  arranged  that  he  could 
find  a  barn  that  met  his  exact  requirements,  his  barn  plan 
problem  would  be  solved.  Some  of  the  obstacles  to  standard 
plans  are  given  here.  The  type  of  farming  is  the  first  con- 
sideration, for  the  barn  would  first  of  all  need  to  be  suited 
to  the  purpose.  The  locality  would  have  some  effect,  for 
different  conditions  prevail  in  Georgia  and  the  Dakotas.  The 
number  of  stock  kept  on  the  farm  varies  an  unlimited  number 
of  times.  To  meet  all  requirements,  there  would  need  to  be 
standards  for  each  type  of  framing,  each  floor  plan,  each  height, 
and  each  material  used  in  the  construction.  If  all  of  these 
points  were  provided  for,  there  would  be  a  confusing  number 
of  standards,  and  the  value  would  be  lost. 

The  authors  believe  that  some  parts  of  the  plan  and 
construction  could  be  standardized.  The  ceihng  height, 
manger,  stall  width,  size  of  gutter,  and  many  parts  of  the  plank 
frame  have  been  developed  by  long  usage  into  more  or  less 
ideal  form.  By  accepting  these  items  as  best,  the  farmer  or 
builder  would  be  saved  the  annoyance  of  experimenting. 
For  the  plan,  and  the  building  itself,  almost  every  barn  is  a 
special  problem,  and  will  have  to  be  solved  as  such. 


CHAPTER  IX 
BARN   CONSTRUCTION 

The  correct  framing  and  construction  of  the  barn  has  a 
direct  effect  on  the  economy  of  the  building,  for  it  is  possible 
to  save  by  good  care,  or  to  waste  by  the  improper  use  of  material. 
Details  are  important,  for  upon  them  depends  the  value  of 
the  completed  structure.  The  following  discussion  is  not 
intended  for  the  builder  who  is  already  familiar  with  most 
parts  of  construction,  but  rather  for  the  student  and  farmer, 
who  should  know  the  features  of  good  construction.  The 
discussion  in  the  following  two  chapters  embodies  the  practices 
generally  adopted  by  those  connected  with  any  phase  of 
building  or  designing. 

Factors  Afifecting  Construction. — CUmate  has  a  consider- 
able effect  on  construction,  for  the  Southern  barn  does  not 
need  to  be  designed  to  keep  out  the  cold,  but  it  must  have  a 
good  roof.  In  the  North,  the  foundation  must  extend  below 
the  frost  line,-  and  the  walls  be  made  tight.  If  there  is  a  proba- 
bility of  high  winds,  the  barn  must  be  strong  and  well  braced. 
Farming  methods  determine  whether  the  barn  is  to  be  a  strong, 
permanent,  well-built  structure,  or  a  cheap  shelter.  Kind 
of  stock  determines  whether  the  barn  is  to  be  an  efficient 
farm  factory,  or  just  a  shelter  from  the  elements.  Barns 
with  hay  capacity  must  have  stronger  supports  and  heavier 
framing  than  the  one-story  shed.  Legal  restrictions  may 
determine  to  some  extent  the  kind  of  barn  to  be  built. 

Definitions. — To  understand  fully  the  construction  of 
barns  it  is  necessary  that  the  reader  be  familiar  with  the 
terms  used.  The  following  terms  are  those  most  used  in  con- 
sidering construction  work,  and  the  common  usage  is  given: 

^.      64 


DEFINITIONS  65 

Footing. — The  broadened  base  of  the  founda- 
tion or  pier,  which  supports  the  foundation  wall  or 
column. 

Foundation. — That  part  of  the  building  which  sup- 
ports the  wall  of  the  superstructure,  usually  of  masonry, 
and  extending  from  the  footing  to  the  ground  level  or 
above. 

Pier. — The  masonry  support  for  column  or  sill, 
usually  square  or  rectangular  in  shape. 

Sill. — A  horizontal  member  resting  on  foundation 
or  pier  and  forming  the  bottom  of  the  wall. 

Column. — Upright  member  supporting  floor  girders 
or  purhns. 

Girder. — The  beam  which  rests  on  the  columns  and 
supports  the  floor  joists. 

Joist. — The  beam  or  support  which  holds  the  floor, 
and  to  which  the  flooring  is  fastened. 

Studding. — Vertical  wall  members,  extending  from 
sill  to  plate,  forming  the  skeleton  of  the  wall,  and  to 
which  sheathing,  siding,  and  lath  and  plaster  are 
fastened. 

Plate. — The  horizontal  member  at  the  top  of  the 
studding. 

Ribbon. — A  horizontal  piece  notched  into  the  stud- 
ding, to  help  support  the  floor  joists  at  the  wall. 

Rafter. — The  framing  member  of  the  roof,  which 
holds  the  roof  sheathing. 

Lookout. — The  projecting  end  of  the  rafter,  or  short 
pieces  to  frame  the  eaves,  or  the  "  overhang  "  of  the 
roof. 

Purlin. — A  horizontal  member  intermediate  between 
the  plate  and  ridge,  supporting  the  rafters. 

Sheathing. — The  covering  or  boxing  over  the  frame- 
work of  the  building. 

Truss. — A  built-up  structure,  composed  of  several 
pieces,  acting  together  as  a  beam  to  support  a  roof  or 
floor  span. 


66  BARN  CONSTRUCTION 

Bent. — The  interval  between  trusses,  measured  from 
center  to  center  of  truss. 

Collar  Beam. — Cross  braces  on  pairs  of  rafters,  near 
the  ridge. 

Self-supporting  Roof. — That  type  of  roof  construc- 
tion without  supporting  members  within  the  loft. 

Timber  Frame. — Roof  framing  consisting  of  pieces 
larger  than  2  inches  thick,  for  the  principal  members. 

Plank  Frame. — Construction  in  which  none  of  the 
material  used  is  larger  than  2  inches  thick. 

Preliminary  Work. — The  exact  size  and  shape  of  the  barn 
must  be  determined  before  the  construction  work  can  be 
started.  The  ground  should  be  brought  to  the  desired  grade 
by  cutting  and  filling.  The  foundation  should  not  be  placed 
on  filled  or  made  ground  until  it  is  thoroughly  settled. 
Corners  may  be  squared  by  making  a  triangular  frame  with 
sides  3,  4,  and  5  feet  long.  The  larger  angle  will  be  90°,  or 
a  right  angle.  To  check  the  rectangle  of  the  building,  the 
diagonals  should  be  measured,  and  made  equal. 

Before  the  foundation  is  made  all  tile  lines  and  drains 
should  be  located  and  constructed,  and  their  exact  location 
marked  on  the  plan  or  on  a  map.  Openings  for  doors  should 
be  marked  off  exactly,  in  order  that  the  masonry  foundation 
may  be  built  to  leave  the  door  openings  above  the  ground 
level. 

The  trench  for  the  foundation,  if  carefully  dug,  and 
widened  at  the  bottom,  will  serve  as  the  forms  for  concrete. 
Above  the  ground,  wood  forms,  well  braced,  are  used.  Forms 
should  be  carefully  leveled,  to  give  a  foundation  that  is  straight 
and  true. 

Foundation. — The  foundation  should  be  extended  below 
the  frost  line,  and  down  to  firm  soil.  This  depth  will  vary, 
but  for  average  conditions  should  be  3  to  4  feet  below  the  grade 
line.  The  foundation  wall  should  be  not  less  than  10  inches 
thick  if  of  concrete.  Stone  walls  are  made  about  2  feet  thick. 
The  base  or  footing  should  be  between  12  and  20  inches  wide. 


FLOORS 


67 


to  prevent  settlement.  The  foundation  of  masonry  should 
be  carried  at  least  1  foot  above  the  ground  to  keep  the  framing 
away  from  the  damp  ground.  In  many  barns  the  founda- 
tion is  carried  to  a  height  of  4  feet  above  the  ground.  This 
affords  a  permanent  lower  wall  for 
the  stable,  and  is  more  easily  kept 
clean  than  frame  construction. 

A  wet  mixture  of  1:  2:  4  con- 
crete is  best  for  foundation  work. 
Above  the  ground  the  forms  should 
be  tight  and  smooth.  Bolts,  |  by 
18  inches,  should  be  placed  in  the 
wet  concrete  at  intervals  of  about 
6  feet.  The  sill  is  then  bolted  to 
the    foundation.       The    foundation 


•  Lowett  •  WAiu.  •  co/r«r»c;crya/y» 


should  be  made   separate   from   the  ^^^-  58.— Good  type  of  foun- 
a  •  J       J.  -1  1      •      ii  dation  wall  and  sill. 

floor,  m  order  to  avoid  cracks  in  the 

latter,  in  case  the  foundation  wall  settles  slightly. 

Hollow  tile,  brick  and  stone  are  used  to  some  extent  for 
foundations.  These  materials  are  laid  up  in  a  manner  similar 
to  that  used  in  ordinary  wall  construction.  The  barn  founda- 
tion should  be  continuous,  rather  than  in  the  form  of  piers. 
The  appearance  is  better,  the  building  is  warmer,  and  there 
is  less  danger  of  rodents  burrowing  under  the  building. 

Floors. — Barn  floors  are  made  4J  or  5  inches  thick,  of 
two-course  concrete,  for  best  results.  The  construction  of 
floors  is  discussed  elsewhere  in  the  text.  The  floor  con- 
struction is  usually  delayed  until  the  framework  of  the  building 
is  completed.  Anchors  and  bolts  are  placed  when  the  concrete 
is  poured.  Floors  should  be  given  sufficient  slope  to  carry 
all  water  to  the  drains. 

If  the  ground  about  the  building  is  well  drained,  the  floor 
may  be  laid  directly  on  the  ground  without  filling.  A  fill 
of  about  6  inches  of  cinders,  gravel,  or  crushed  stone  forms  a 
good  base  for  the  floor,  and  should  be  used  if  the  barn  is  located 
on  low,  wet  ground. 

If  cork  brick  or  creosoted  wood  blocks  are  to  be  used  in 


68  BARN  CONSTRUCTION 

the  stalls,  the  top  course  of  concrete  is  not  put  on,  and  a 
depression  is  left  in  the  floor  sufficient  to  receive  the  blocks. 
A  retaining  curb  6  inches  wide  is  placed  at  the  rear  of  the  stall 
next  to  the  gutter. 

Masonry  Walls. — The  types  of  permanent  materials  used 
in  barn  walls  are  concrete,  hollow  tile,  brick,  stone  and 
concrete ;  blocks.  They  afford  a  fire-resisting  wall  which  is 
easily  cleaned  and  does  nor  require  painting. 

Concrete  walls  are  made  10  to  12  inches  thick.  Tight 
forms  are  required,  and  care  is  necessary  to  get  a  smooth, 
even  wall.  Openings  for  doors,  ventilating  flues,  and  windows 
must  be  formed  in  the  concrete  as  it  is  made.     Reinforcing  is 


Fig.  59. — Permanent  construction  in  farm  buildings. 

necessary  if  the  concrete  extends  above  the  openings.  Two- 
inch  plank  frames  around  the  openings  are  necessary. 

Hollow  tile  is  an  excellent  material  for  barn  walls.  The 
wall  is  made  8  inches  thick  in  most  cases,  although  12  inches 
is  used  in  some  barns.  The  usual  block  is  5  by  8  by  12  inches, 
with  two  or  three  air  cells.  The  mortar  joints  average 
I  inch  thick.  Portland  cement  mortar,  either  white  or 
colored,  may  be  used,  a  red  or  brown  mortar  usually  resulting 
in  a  better  appearance  than  the  white.  If  openings  are  spaced 
according  to  the  length  of  the  blocks,  the  trouble  of  cutting 
fractional  blocks  will  be  avoided.  Brick  is  sometimes  used 
to  fill  in  the  corners,  although  half-blocks  may  be. secured. 

Cement  blocks  are  laid  up  in  much  the  same  manner  as 
the  hollow  tile,  and  form  an  8-  to  12-inch  wall.     The  blocks  are 


SILLS  69 

more  easily  handled  than  the  monolithic  concrete,  and  the 
cost  is  less;  they  may  be  purchased  in  a  variety  of  forms,  or 
may  be  made  on  the  farm,  if  the  necessary  materials  are  at  hand. 

Brick  and  stone  are  used  only  to  a  limited  extent,  and  will 
not  be  considered  except  briefly.  The  average  brick  is  2| 
by  4  by  8  inches  in  size,  and  requires  a  mortar  joint  J  to  f 
inch  thick.  The  wall  should  be  at  least  9  inches  thick. 
Stone  walls  are  20  to  24  inches  thick,  laid  up  with  cement 
mortar.  If  a  supply  of  stones  is  at  hand,  they  may  make  an 
economical  barn  wall,  but  the  cost  is  excessive  if  much  labor 
is  involved  in  getting  them. 

Barns  built  entirely  of  concrete  or  other  masonry  material 
have  been  built,  but  they  are  not  yet  practicable  for  the  average 
farm.  The  cost  is  high  for  the  masonry  roof,  and  few  builders 
doing  farm  work  are  equipped  for  handling  the  work.  If 
the  walls  are  made  entirely  of  masonry,  and  the  roof  of  frame 
construction,  the  problem  is  simpUfied  somewhat.  With 
masonry  walls  to  the  eaves,  however,  it  is  rather  difficult  to 
frame  properly  the  self-supporting  roof.  It  is  doubtful  if 
there  is  any  advantage  in  building  the  walls  of  masonry  above 
the  first  story.  Practically  all  of  the  advantages  of  the 
masonry  walls  are  secured  below  the  second  floor. 

The  authors  believe  that  the  best  results  can  be  secured 
if  the  first  story  is  made  of  permanent  materials,  and  the 
upper  part  of  frame  construction.  If  it  is  desired  to  fireproof 
the  barn  on  account  of  the  value  of  the  stock,  it  is  suggested 
that  the  stable  be  made  fireproof  by  masonry  walls,  steel 
fixtures,  and  a  reinforced  loft  floor.  It  is  cheaper  to  risk  the 
danger  of  fire  in  the  loft  than  to  attempt  to  fireproof  the  whole 
building. 

Sills. — If  the  foundation  is  made  continuous,  the  sill 
usually  consists  of  two  pieces  of  2-inch  lumber,  6,  8,  or  10 
inches  wide,  according  to  the  thickness  of  the  wall.  The  sill 
should  be  laid  in  a  bed  of  mortar,  on  the  foundation,  and  made 
level.  If  bolts  have  been  placed  in  the  foundation,  the  sill 
may  be  bolted  fast.  The  double  thickness  sill  can  be  spliced 
by   breaking   joints,    and   the   strength   is   not   harmed.      In 


70 


BARN  CONSTRUCTION 


barns  built  on  piers,  as  in  the  case  of  many  old  structures, 
the  sill  was  of  the  heavy  timber  type,  perhaps  10  inches  square. 

Plates. — The  wall  plate  is  of  the  same  material  and 
construction  as  the  sill;  it  is  fastened  to  the  studding  and  serves 
as  a  seat  for  the  rafters. 

Studding. — The  vertical  wall  members  vary  from  2  by  4- 
inch  material  in  the  small  barn,  to  2  by  10  inch  in  the  lower 
walls  of  the  well-built  barn;  2  by  6  and  2  by  8  inch  are  the 
most  common  sizes.     The  usual  spacing  in  barns  is  2  feet 


Fig.  60. — Detail  of  typical 
plate  and  cornice. 


Fig.  61. — Typical  method  of 
framing  about  a  window. 


apart  on  centers.     Studs  are  doubled  at  each  side  of  openings, 
and  are  double  or  triple  at  the  corners. 

Columns. — The  columns  or  posts  may  be  of  sohd  timber, 
built-up  lumber,  or  of  iron  or  steel.  The  common  sizes  are 
6  by  6  wood,  or  4  and  4J-inch  iron  or  steel,  for  average  con- 
ditions. The  length  of  the  column  and  the  load  to  be  sup- 
ported should  be  considered,  for  best  economy.  Posts  should 
always  be  spaced  to  fit  the  floor  plan,  and  the  plan  should  be 
fully  decided  upon  before  the  posts  are  located.  In  "  face- 
out  ''  plans  the  posts  should  come  at  the  rear  of  the  stall 
partitions,  and  in  the  ^*  face-in  "   plan  the  posts  are  placed 


GIRDERS 


71 


JOTSTS S-O'  o.c. 


GIKZil^lS 


^SS2 


.  tCO£,CXmf 


f^I.OO. 


m> 


^ 


just  behind  the  stall  frame.     Steel  posts,  concrete  filled,  are 
preferred  to  any  other  type. 

Girders. — The  load  on  the  girder  should  be  ascertained, 
and  the  size  determined  according^.  The  built-up  girder, 
made  from  several  thicknesses  of  2-inch  lumber,  is  preferred. 
The  joints  can  be  distributed  so  the 
girder  is  not  weakened  at  any  one 
point;  the  continuous  beam  is 
somewhat  stronger  than  the  simple 
beam  that  is  broken  at  each  sup- 
port. The  girder  should  be  sup- 
ported by  a  post  at  intervals  not 
greater  than  14  feet.  A  compara- 
tively deep,  narrow  girder  is  stronger 
for  the  material  used,  than  a  square 
or  shallow  one.  A  common  size  is 
built  from  five  pieces  of  2  by  10-inch 
lumber,  however,  the  size  should  be 
figured  in  each  case,  if  possible. 

Joists. — The  floor  joists  are  2 
inches  thick,  and  vary  according  to 
the  load,  from  8  to  12  inches  deep. 

The  joists  should  run  crosswise  of  the  barn,  and  be  lapped 
above  the  girder.     The  total  length  of  the  joists  across  the 

barn  should  exceed  the 
barn  width  by  about 
2  feet,  to  allow  for  lap- 
ping. The  usual  spac- 
ing is  2  feet  apart  on 
centers,  although  a  16- 
inch  spacing  is  some- 
times used,.  Joists 
should  be  bridged  once 
in  8  feet,  and  twice 
in  a  14-foot  span. 
Rafters.— Barn  rafters  are  almost  without  exception 
made  of  2  by  6-inch  material,  and  spaced  2  feet  on  centers. 


Fig.  62. — Detail  of  column, 
joists  and  girder. 


Fig.  63.— Details  of  typical  ridge  and  purlin. 


72  BARN  CONSTRUCTION 

Long  rafter  lengths  are  sometimes  supported  between  the  plate 
and  ridge  with  a  purlin.  In  the  self-supporting  roof  the 
rafters  are  usually  braced  in  pairs,  to  form  trusses. 

Bracing. — The  principal  bracing  in  the  barn  frame  will 
be  considered  under  the  subject  of  roof  framing.  Aside  from 
the  main  frame,  additional  braces  are  required  for  rigidity. 
Diagonal  braces  and  end  braces  in  the  barn  are  necessary  to 
withstand  the  action  of  the  wind,  the  location  depending  on 
the  plan. 

Sheathing. — Wall  sheathing  is  often  omitted  in  barns, 
and  the  siding  nailed  directly  on  the  studding.  In  cold 
sections,  or  where  an  exceptionally  good  barn  is  desired,  the 


Fig.  64. — A  barn  frame  of  the  Shawver  type. 

sheathing  is  used.  The  usual  wall  sheathing  is  either  shiplap, 
or  inch  boards,  No.  2  grade  being  generally  used.  Some 
builders  put  the  sheathing  diagonally  on  the  studding,  for  the 
bracing  effect,  though  usually  it  is  placed  horizontally. 

Roof  sheathing  for  prepared  roofing  or  slate  or  asphalt 
shingles  is  put  on  sohd.  For  wood  shingles,  the  sheathing 
consists  of  1  by  4-inch  boards  laid  with  a  2-inch  space  between 
them. 

Siding. — Siding  is  available  in  a  number  of  forms,  the  most 
common  for  barns  being  bevel  siding,  drop  siding,  matched 
boards,  and  plain  boards  with  battens.  Either  horizontal 
or  vertical  siding  may  be  used,  and  the  kind  depends  princi- 
pally on  the  type  of  framing.     The  plank  truss  frame  usually 


LOFT  FLOORS  73 

takes  vertical  siding,  and  the  braced  rafter  frame  the  horizontal 
siding.  Weather-resisting  woods  such  as  white  pine,  cypress, 
cedar,  and  redwood  are  preferable  for  siding. 

Ceiling. — Ceiling  lumber  is  matched,  dressed,  and  beaded, 
and  is  used  in  place  of  sheathing  on  the  projecting  ends  of  the 
rafters,  if  the  open  cornice  is  used.  Good  dairy  farms  are 
ceiled  inside  both  on  the  ceiling  and  side  walls.  Clear  pine  or 
fir  is  the  common  material  used,  the  f-inch  thickness  being 
most  widely  used. 

Loft  Floors. — Loft  floors  should  be  made  of  dressed  and 
matched  lumber,  the  most  suitable  material  being  pine  or  fir, 
1  by  6-inch  flooring.  The  floor  should  be  made  tight,  to  pre- 
vent dirt  and  chaff  from  sifting  through  into  the  stable.  Double 
floors  are  not  common,  although  in  some  barns  they  are  used 
because  of  the  greater  cleanliness  secured  in  the  stable. 


CHAPTER  X 
BARN   FRAMING 

The  framing  of  the  barn,  and  especially  of  the  barn  roof, 
is  one  of  the  most  important  problems  in  the  design  and 
construction  of  barns.  The  objects  are  to  secure  a  strong, 
rigid  frame,  with  the  least  amount  of  lumber  consistent  with 
strength,  to  avoid  obstructing  the  hay  loft  with  large  timbers, 
and  to  reduce  the  amount  of  labor  necessary  to  erect  the 
frame.  The  method  which  seems  most  nearly  to  meet  the 
requirements  is  the  plank  frame.  The  method  formerly 
used  is  known  as  the  timber  frame. 

Timber  Frame. — The  timber  frame  consists  of  sills,  posts, 
girders,  and  braces  of  large  timbers,  ranging  up  to  12  by 
12-inch  pieces,  the  heavy  pieces  being  usually  mortised  together. 
For  the  most  part  the  timber  frame  is  no  longer  being  built, 
except  in  certain  locahties  where  lumber  is  easily  secured  and 
local  mills  furnish  the  greater  part  of  the  supply. 

The  advantages  of  the  timber  frame  are  that  it  is  strong 
and  substantial,  and  many  carpenters  who  are  not  famihar 
with  the  plank  barn  will  build  the  timber  frame. 

The  disadvantages  are  that  about  20  per  cent  more  lumber 
is  used  than  is  necessary  for  strength,  and  the  labor  of  erecting 
is  greater  than  for  the  plank  frame;  in  most  parts  of  the 
country  the  larger  sizes  of  lumber  are  not  available  except  on 
special  orders;  the  cost  of  large  sizes  is  more  than  for  2-inch 
lumber;  the  braces  and  cross  beams  in  the  loft  interfere  with 
the  use  of  hay  unloading  machinery.  The  illustration  is  given 
for  comparison  with  the  lighter  frame,  and  is  not  recommended. 

Plank  Frame. — The  plank-frame  barn  is  built  without  the 
use  of  any  material  larger  than  2  by  12  inches.    All  pieces  are 

74 


PLANK  FRAME 


75 


readily  secured  in  practically  every  lumber  yard.  The  greatest 
length  necessary  is  about  24  feet  for  a  few  braces  or  supports, 
and  these  pieces  may  be  spKced  from  shorter  lengths.  Girders 
or  posts  requiring  more  strength  than  is  given  by  one  piece 
are  built  up  from  two  or  more  2-inch  pieces.  The  use  of  2-inch 
members  in  the  trusses  of  the  braced  rafter  and  plank  truss 


/e/i/^T^/^3 


sy 


01^AJ?^7 


^^lt,^T10n  Tl/^BSI?  mA/^f  SATS^f'-f-^ 

Fig.  65. — Illustrating  timber  framing  for  bams. 


frames  has  made  the  self-supporting  roof  conmion  on  farm 
barns.  Less  lumber  is  needed  in  the  plank  frame,  and  suffi- 
cient strength  is  secured  by  the  proper  placing  of  the  material. 
Less  labor  is  required  in  the  construction  of  the  plank  frame 
as  compared  with  the  timber. 

The  sizes  of  material  used  in  the  plank  frame  are  figured 
for  spans  of  from  32  to  40  feet.     The  trusses  discussed  here 


76  BARN  FRAMING 

should  not  be  used  on  very  wide  barns  without  additional 
material  being  used.  The  sizes  of  material  used  in  the  plank 
frame  have  been  evolved  from  many  years  of  construction 
work.  Some  figures  have  been  announced  which  show  that 
the  practical  sizes  tally  closely  with  the  theoretical  require- 
ments. The  reader  will  be  able  to  determine  the  correct  sizes 
of  joists,  girders,  and  supporting  posts  by  referring  to  the 
discussion  in  Chapter  XXX. 

Gable  Roof  Framing. — The  gable  roof  for  barns  is  now 
commonly  used  on  the  one-story  building.  The  roof  pitch 
varies  from  J  to  J.  If  there  is  no  storage  space  provided 
overhead,  the  lower  pitch  is  satisfactory.  The  building  should 
be  tied  together  at  the  plate  either  by  ceiling  joists  or  cross 
ties,  to  prevent  spreading.  A  large  part  of  the  load  on  the  roof 
tends  to  thrust  outward  at  the  plate,  and  ties  are  necessary 
to  prevent  sagging  and  bulging.  In  the  low-pitch  roof  the 
rafters  are  extended  beyond  the  edge  of  the  building  to  form 
the  lookouts. 

Rafters  are  2  by  4  inches  in  size  for  spans  under  20  feet, 
and  2  by  6  for  all  spans  greater  than  20  feet.  In  buildings  as 
wide  as  the  average  machine  shed  or  barn,  additional  support 
above  that  afforded  by  the  rafters  and  cross  ties  is  necessary. 
A  purlin  plate,  intermediate  between  the  plate  and  ridge  and 
supported  by  posts  from  the  floor,  is  needed. 

Gambrel  Roof. — The  gambrel  roof  is  the  most  popular 
type  and  is  practical  for  all  average  conditions.  A  compari- 
son with  the  gable  roof  shows  a  greater  hay-loft  capacity. 
The  gambrel  roof  barn  has  more  hay  capacity  than  any 
other  type  except  the  Gothic,  which  is  not  in  common  use. 

The  gambrel  roof  is  sometimes  erroneously  termed  *'  curb  " 
roof  or  "  hip  "  roof.  The  hip  roof  refers  to  a  v^ery  different 
type  of  roof,  and  neither  term  is  correct. 

Layout  of  Roof. — Poor  proportions  result  in  a  poor  appear- 
ance, and  weakened  construction,  in  the  case  of  the  gambrel 
roof.  The  common  faults  found  in  existing  barns  are  that  the 
two  pitches  are  made  nearly  equal;  the  upper  part  is  made 
too  flat;    the  lower  pair  of  rafters  are  too  long;    or  the  angles 


TYPES  OF  GAMBREL  ROOF  FRAMING 


77 


of  both  sets  of  rafters  are  not  correct.  The  three  suggestions 
which  follow,  if  taken  together,  should  result  in  a  well-pro- 
portioned, strong  frame: 

1.  Since  the  arch  is  one  of  the  strongest  forms  of  construc- 
tion, the  truss  of  the  gambrel  roof  should  act  in  a  way  similar 
to  the  arch.  To  secure  a  truss  following  the  hnes  of  an  arch, 
construct  a  semicircle,  with  a  radius  equal  to  one-half  the 
width  of  the  building.  Place  the  center  on  a  level  with  the 
plates  and  midway  between.  The  break  in  the  roof  will 
come  near  the  arc  of  the 

circle,  and  the  ridge  will 
be  somewhat  above  the 
circle. 

2.  The  use  of  stock 
lengths  of  lumber  is 
economical,  and  the  roof 
should  be  designed  to 
use  stock-length  ma- 
terials or  slightly  less. 
The  upper  and  lower 
rafters  may  be  about 
the  same  length,  or  the 
upper  pair  2  feet  shorter 
than  the  lower  ones.  Lengths  of  16  and  12  feet  work  out 
well  for  the  36-foot  barn.  Other  combinations  for  various 
widths  are  14  and  14  feet;  14  and  12  feet;  and  12  and  12 
feet;  or  12  and  10  feet  on  narrow  buildings. 

3.  The  lower  slope  of  the  gambrel  roof  should  be  approxi- 
mately 60°  with  the  horizontal,  and  the  upper  slope  about 
30°.  There  may  be  shght  variations  from  these  angles,  of 
5  to  8°.  In  the  36-foot  barn  the  break  in  the  roof  is  about 
7  feet  from  the  plate,  measured  along  the  "  run "  of  the 
rafter. 

Types  of  Gambrel  Roof  Framing. — The  two  methods  of 
framing  the  gambrel  roof  in  the  plank  frame  construction 
are  known  as  the  "  braced  rafter  "  and  the  "  plank  truss  " 
construction,   the  latter  being  also  known  as  the  Shawver 


J.  /1/rax.Fa    of^  oo'  a/yd  so: 


Fig.  66. — Illustrating  method  of  laying  out 
gambrel  roof. 


78 


BARN  FRAMING 


frame.  The  use  of  these  two  types  of  plank  framing  seems 
to  be  about  equally  divided.  Both  types  have  been  used  for  a 
number  of  years,  and  have  proven  amply  strong.  Personal 
preference  will  largely  determine  which  of  the  two  methods 
will  be  chosen.  The  floor  plan  and  arrangement  of  the  barn 
does  not  affect  the  type  of  framing.  Either  of  the  two  styles 
of  framing  discussed  here  may  be  used  with  any  plan. 


FiQ.  67. — Typical  braced  rafter  construction. 


Braced  Rafter  Frame. — In  this  type  of  framing  the  studding 
are  spaced  2  feet  apart  on  centers.  The  floor  joists  are  set 
crosswise  of  the  barn,  with  the  same  spacing  as  the  studs. 
Each  joist  is  nailed  securely  to  the  studding,  and  a  ribbon  is 
notched  into  the  studding  just  below  the  joists.  Horizontal 
siding  should  be  used,  as  the  siding  can  then  be  nailed  directly 
to  the  studding  without  the  use  of  naihng  girts.     The  studding 


BRACED  RAFTER  FRAME  79 

extend  from  the  foundation  to  the  plate  without  a  break. 
The  wall  framing  to  the  plate  is  completed  before  the  roof  is 
framed. 

The  distinguishing  feature  of  the  braced  rafter  frame  is  the 
fact  that  each  set  of  four  rafters  is  braced  at  all  angles,  to  form 
a  light  truss,  which  supports  the  roof  through  a  length  of  2 
feet,  which  is  the  spacing  of  the  rafters,  no  purlins  or  extra 
framing  being  necessary.  Each  truss  consists  of  two  lower 
rafters,  two  upper  rafters,  a  collar  beam,  or  tie,  and  upper  and 
lower  braces.  The  upper  braces  are  made  approximately  the 
same  length  as  the  upper  rafters,  and  extend  from  the  center 
of  the  upper  rafter  to  a  point  about  7  feet  below  the  angle  of 
the  roof  on  the  lower  rafter.  The  lower  brace  is  about  the 
same  length  as  the  lower  rafter,  and  extends  from  just  above 
the  second  floor  to  the  point  where  the  upper  brace  attaches. 

In  erecting  the  roof  frame  the  pieces  are  all  cut  on  the  ground 
or  loft  floor,  and  nailed  together,  with  the  exception  of  the  lower 
braces.  The  builder  should  determine  the  length  of  the  pieces 
and  the  angle  of  cut,  and  cut  all  rafters  and  braces  first.  The 
rafters  are  then  laid  out  on  a  smooth  surface,  and  the  collar 
beam  and  upper  braces  nailed  fast.  The  trusses  are  ijhen  piled 
on  the  loft  floor  if  the  side  walls  are  low,  or  on  a  temporary 
platform  if  the  side  walls  are  high.  The  foot  of  each  truss  is 
then  placed  on  the  plate,  and  the  truss  raised  with  a  gin  pole 
and  block  and  tackle.  When  raised,  the  truss  should  be  braced 
with  temporary  supports,  and  nailed  at  the  plate.  The  lower 
braces,  connecting  the  truss  with  the  studding,  are  then  put 
in  place.  After  four  or  five  trusses  are  raised,  they  can  be 
trued  up,  and  sheathing  boards  nailed  on  to  hold  them  in  place. 
The  lookouts  can  be  put  on  after  the  trusses  are  all  raised. 
Lookouts  may  be  made  from  2  by  4-inch  lumber  if  desired. 
They  are  usually  set  at  an  angle  of  45°,  and  project  over  the 
building  line  a  distance  of  18  inches  to  2  feet.  Short  braces 
may  be  added  to  the  truss,  as  shown  in  the  drawings. 

The  entire  framework  of  the  roof  in  the  braced  rafter  barn 
should  be  made  from  2  by  6-inch  lumber.  The  braces  are 
sometimes  made  of  2  pieces  of  1  by  6  or  1  by  8-inch  material, 


80 


BARN  FRAMING 


but  this  requires  extra  cutting,  and  the  same  amount  of  lumber. 
The  studding  for  most  barns  of  this  type  should  be  2  by  6, 
or  2  by  8. 

At  the  ends  of  the  barn  the  plate  is  carried  across  at  the 
square,  or  even  with  the  sidewall  plate.  The  studding  are 
spaced  at  2-foot  distances,  from  foundation  to  plate.  Short 
studding  are  used  to  j&U  in  the  gable  end.     The  hay  door  will 


Fig.  68. — Side  elevation  of  braced  rafter  construction. 


be  framed  in  at  one  end  of  the  barn.  Wind  braces,  or  end 
braces,  perpendicular  to  the  end  of  the  barn  are  necessary  to 
prevent  the  barn  from  swaying.  Diagonal  braces  throughout 
the  barn  are  desirable  to  strengthen  the  building. 

The  advantages  of  the  braced  rafter  frame  over  the  plank 
truss  frame  are:  Lighter  material  is  needed;  fewer  men  are 
needed  to  handle  the  job;  the  loft  is  practically  free  from  any 
obstruction;   and  about  10  per  cent  less  lumber  is  required. 


PLANK  TRUSS  FRAME 


81 


Plank  Truss  Frame. — The  trusses  in  this  type  of  framing 
are  placed  10  to  16  feet  apart,  with  12  and  14  feet  as  the  usual 
spacing.  These  trusses  support  the  entire  roof  load,  and  are 
naturally  heavier  than  the  truss  of  the  braced  rafter  frame. 
The  space  between  the  trusses  is  filled  in  with  braces  and 
rafters.  The  most  widely  used  method  of  construction  calls 
for  the  building  of  the  entire  first  story  before  the  trusses  are 
made  and  erected.  The  studding  are  short,  and  extend  only 
to  a  plate  under  the  floor  joists.     The  columns  and  girders 


Pt.iurjr  TKc/aa  fnifj^/rro 


Fig.  69. — Typical  Shawver  barn 
frame. 


Fig.  70. — Details  of  construction 
at  foot  of  truss,  Shawver  frame. 


are  set,  and  the  joists  then  placed  much  as  they  would  be  on 
an  ordinary  house  or  barn  foundation.  The  second-floor 
joists  are  then  practically  covered  with  the  flooring  boards, 
to  form  a  large  platform  on  which  to  work. 

In  the  first  story  of  the  plank  truss  barn,  the  wall  studding 
are  not  spaced  at  regular  intervals,  but  according  to  the 
openings.  Diagonal  braces  are  placed  at  frequent  intervals 
between  the  openings  to  strengthen  the  frame.  The  plate 
under  the  joists  serves  as  the  header  for  the  top  of  the  openings 
in  the  first  floor.    At  the  truss  intervals,  or  12  to  14  feet, 


82 


BARN  FRAMING 


several  pieces  of  studding  are  set  together  to  form  a  post  on 
which  the  truss  is  supported.  It  will  be  noted  that  no  window 
or  other  opening  can  come  under  a  truss  because  of  this 
post. 

Each  truss  is  made  up  of  the  following  parts:  A  cross 
tie  extends  across  the  building  at  the  truss,  which  consists  of 
three  pieces,  the  same  size  as  the  joists.  The  pieces  are  set 
with  short  blocks  between  them,  for  splicing,  which  gives 
a  three-ply  piece,  with  two  2-inch  spaces.     Purhn  supports 

extend  from  the  joist  line  to  the 
purlin.  They  are  made  up  of  two 
pieces  of  2  by  10  or  2  by  12-inch 
material,  with  a  2-inch  space  be- 
tween the  pieces.  Roof  or  purUn 
supports  extend  from  just  below 
the  plate  to  the  ridge  of  the  roof. 
The  wall  post  consists  of  two  pieces 
of  2  by  8,  with  a  2-inch  space  be- 
tween. A  2  by  4  brace  extends 
from  the  purlin  to  the  ridge.  These 
pieces,  together  with  the  short 
braces,  as  shown  in  the  illustration, 
form  the  truss.  The  truss  is  built 
on  the  loft  floor,  and  later  raised 
into  position.  The  upper  roof 
braces  fit  into  the  interval  between  the  two  pieces  of  the  purlin 
support.  The  two  pieces  of  the  purlin  support  and  the  waU 
post  fit  into  the  intervals  between  the  pieces  in  the  cross  tie, 
and  when  erected,  form  a  rigid  structure. 

The  principal  parts  of  the  truss  are  bolted  together  at  each 
joint.  The  trusses  are  raised  by  means  of  the  gin  pole  and  pul- 
leys. A  team  of  horses  aids  in  raising  the  truss,  and  guy 
ropes  should  be  used  to  steady  it.  The  illustrations  show  how 
the  trusses  are  erected  and  braced.  The  intermediate  rafters, 
braces,  and  nailing  girts  may  be  put  on  as  soon  as  two  or 
more  trusses  are  in  place.  The  purlin  may  be  built  in  sections 
on  the  ground  and  raised,  or  it  may  be  built  in  place. 


K/tfTSKij///     A 

«^«^^^^7       /         ^ 

rTr: 

STe/i>^ 

\j  i 



\tSj\  III. 

'  T>L,AAftr  TRUSS  r^KanrrfG- 

'497-   F>Z./lTJf' 

Fig.  71. — Details  of  construc- 
tion at  plate,  Shawver  frame. 


PLANK  TRUSS  FRAME 


83 


Fig.  72. — Erecting  first  truss,  Shawver  type  of  construction. 


Fig.  73. — Erecting  second  truss,  Shawver  type  of  construction. 


Fig.  74. — Shawver  frame  being  completed. 


84 


BARN  FRAMING 


There  is  another  method  of  constructing  the  plank-truss 
barn  which  is  used  to  some  extent.     Instead  of  building  the  first 


•lyTTErlVtftDIATK  aBCTtOTf  O^-  1«00«^< 


Fig.  75. — Details  at  purlin,       Fig.  76. — Section  between  trusses,  Shawver 
Shawver  type  of  frame.  type  of  construction. 


II  //  \  //\\\\^ 


w~v/ 


t: 


¥^^^ 


0 


iNy  i>i^iy 


IW  I  I  I  MIU1 


U 


'jf^s  nvAJ^eyra  fu-j^^jt  rjpo-»9  ^/txAT' 
Fig.  77. — End  framing  Shawver  type  of  construction. 


story  before  the  trusses  are  raised,  the  latter  are  made  to 
extend  from  the  foundation,  and  there  is  no  break  at  the  second 


WIDE  BARN  FRAMING 


85 


floor.  The  advantage  of  this  method  is  that  somewhat  greater 
strength  is  secured,  but  the  labor  is  heavier,  and  the  first 
method  is  more  convenient  in  making  the  trusses,  laying  the 
second  floor,  and  fitting  the  openings  in  the  first  story. 

Intermediate  between  the  trusses  the  rafters  are  spaced 
2  feet  apart,  supported  by  the  plate  and  purlin.  Studding 
in  the  second  story  are  spaced  4  or  6  feet  apart,  and  diagonal 


VBirrtCAZ.  axDirta 


ffoKizormz.  siJfi^  9 


■srjD£:^js-i^vATrorf  of-  r*fe/iMirf<S' 


Fig.  78, — Side  elevation  of  framing,  Shawver  frame. 


braces  used  in  every  bent.  Naihng  girts  of  2  by  6  are  placed 
horizontally  outside  of  the  studding,  trusses,  and  bracing, 
to  receive  the  vertical  siding.  The  frame  can  be  adapted 
for  horizontal  siding  hy  omitting  the  naiUng  strips,  and  placing 
the  studding  not  over  3  feet  apart.  End  framing  consists 
of  a  truss,  filled  in  with  vertical  supports,  and  the  naihng  pieces, 
as  shown  in  the  illustration. 


86  BARN  FRAMING 

The  advantages  claimed  for  the  Shawver  or  plank  truss 
frame  are:  There  are  few  trusses  to  build  and  erect;  the 
construction  is  strong,  and  can  be  used  on  a  barn  40  or  even 
42  feet  wide;  the  barn  is  simple  to  construct;  there  is  a  saving 
of  lumber  over  the  timber  frame  construction. 

Wide  Bam  Framing. — It  has  been  said  that  the  limit  of 
width  for  the  braced  rafter  frame  barn  is  36  or  38  feet,  and 
for  the  Shawver  frame,  40  or  42.  The  common  method  of 
securing  a  wide  barn  has  always  been  to  add  lean-to  sheds  on 
one  or  both  sides  of  the  barn.  The  wide  barn,  to  be  satisfactory, 
must  be  specially  designed  for  the  width  intended,  and  the 


Fig.  79. — Cross-section  of  wide  barn 


lean-to  is  not  recommended.  The  illustration  (Fig.  79) 
shows  an  Iowa  barn  designed  for  3  rows  of  stock,  which  has 
proven  satisfactory.  The  loft,  however,  is  self  supporting 
through  36  feet  or  less. 

Gothic  Roof  Framing. — The  Gothic  roof  barn  is  popular 
because  of  the  large  loft  space,  strong  construction,  and  novel 
appearance.  No  framing  pieces  project  into  the  loft.  The 
cost  of  construction  of  the  Gothic  roof  is  greater  than  for 
the  other  types,  due  to  the  amount  of  cutting  and  fitting 
required. 

The  shape  of  the  roof  is  a  pointed  arch  as  usually  built, 


GOTHIC  ROOF  FRAMING 


87 


and  is  secured  by  taking  a  radius  equal  to  three-fourths  the 
width  of  the  barn  to  find  the  curve  of  the  rafters.  The  center 
is  taken  at  a  point  3  or  4  feet  below  the  level  of  the  plate, 
and  an  arc  is  described  through  the  plate  and  the  center  of  the 
barn  at  the  ridge.  The  point  of  meeting  of  the  two  arcs  drawn 
determines  the  ridge  and  the  shape  of  the  entire  roof.  The 
lookout  is  a  reverse  curve,  on  a  5-foot  radius,  and  fits  smoothly 
into  the  rafter  curve. 

There   are   two    methods   of   building    the   rafters.     The 


■>»•  tt,tff*  3t0K^ 


Fig.  80. — Cross-section  of  bent  rafter  (Gothic)  type  of  construction. 


common  method  is  to  lay  out  the  shape  of  the  rafter  on  a  smooth 
surface,  and  to  fit  1  by  4  pieces  to  the  form.  Five  or  six  pieces 
are  bent  to  shape  and  nailed  to  form  a  rafter  of  the  correct 
shape  and  strength.  The  rafters  are  spaced  2  feet  apart  in 
the  building,  and  tied  at  the  ridge.  To  prevent  spreading, 
short  braces  are  placed  between  the  plate  and  the  floor. 
The  end  framing  and  wall  construction  are  the  same  as  in  the 
braced  rafter  barn. 

The  former  method  was  to  saw  1  by  10-inch  boards  to  the 
proper  curvature  and  build  up  to  three  or  four  thicknesses  of 


88 


BARN  FRAMING 


boards,    breaking    joints.     Short    boards    were    used.     This 
method  was  laborious  and  wasteful. 

Round  Barn  Framing. — The  framing  of  the  round  barn  is 
similar  to  that  for  the  braced-rafter  barn.  The  members  of  the 
frame  converge  to  the  center,  making  the  round  frame  very 
strong.  The  two-slope  gambrel  roof  is  most  often  used. 
Since  the  round  barn  will  be  about  60  feet  or  more  in  diameter, 
longer  length  lumber  is  required  in  the  roof  frame.    Since  the 


Fig.  81. — Side  elevation  of  framing,  bent  rafter  construction. 


framing  parts  become  closer  together  as  they  approach  the 
center,  there  is  more  material  in  the  round  barn  frame  than  is 
necessary  for  strength.  The  reader  should  not  confuse  the 
round  barn  roof  frame  with  the  Gothic  frame,  which  is  used  on 
rectangular  barns. 

Framing  Details. — The  best  indication  of  a  good  builder 
or  a  good  designer  is  the  manner  in  which  he  handles  the 
details  of  building  construction.  In  the  plan  the  details  should 
show  the  exact  sizes  of  material  and  the  manner  in  which  the 


FRAMING  DETAILS 


89 


pieces  are  put  together.     The  builder  and  framer  should  be  able 
to   read  the    detail  drawings,  and 
know  how  to  apply  them   to   the 
structure. 

It  would  be  impossible  to  secure 
the  best  results  in  the  construc- 
'tion  of  a  building  from  plans, 
unless  the  details  are  carefully 
worked  out.  It  is  possible  in  this 
text  to  give  only  the  details  which 
apply  in  particular  to  this  dis- 
cussion. Every  plan,  however,  has 
certain  points  of  construction  that 
should  be  worked  out  in  detail  by  the  designer 


Fig.    82. — Detail    of    dormer 
window  for  gambrel  roof. 


CHAPTER  XI 
BARN   VENTILATION 

Frequent  reference  has  been  made  in  preceding  chapters 
to  the  need  of  adequate  ventilation  in  the  various  barns.  It 
is  comparatively  easy  to  admit  a  sufficient  quantity  of  air 
into  a  building,  if  that  were  the  onlj^  problem.  The  value  of 
a  ventilating  system,  however,  lies  in  its  ability  to  admit 
fresh  air  into  the  barn  without  drafts,  and  without  reducing 
the  temperature  below  normal.  Old  barns  built  with  loose- 
fitting  windows  and  with  cracks  between  the  pieces  of 
siding  admitted  fresh  air,  but  in  severely  cold  or  windy  weather 
such  barns  were  not  comfortable  for  the  stock.  Modern 
barns,  with  good  construction,  do  not  admit  air  through  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  building,  and  are  likely  to  be  under-ventilated, 
unless  special  provision  is  made  for  adequate  ventilation. 

Ventilation  has  not  been  developed  to  an  exact  science 
which  can  be  theoretically  applied  to  every  case  and  made 
to  work.  The  factors  of  cUmatic  conditions,  prevailing  winds, 
cubic  space,  number  of  stock,  and  proximity  to  timber  or  a 
body  of  water  aU  have  an  influence,  which  makes  every  barn  a 
special  problem  of  ventilation.  The  suggestions  here  given 
apply  to  the  general  case,  and  on  the  average  have  been  found 
to  give  the  best  results. 

Definition. — Ventilation  is  the  process  of  introducing 
fresh  air  into  a  building,  in  sufficient  quantities,  and  removing 
the  products  of  respiration,  maintaining  the  air  at  a  certain 
healthful  standard.  The  following  discussion  considers  the 
methods  necessary  to  secure  "  controlled  "  ventilation. 

Purposes  of  Ventilation. — The  purposes  of  ventilation  are 
to  provide  fresh  air,  carry  away  odors,  remove  carbon  dioxide, 
and  carry  away  moisture. 

90 


PURPOSES  OF  VENTILATION 


91 


Fresh  air  is  necessary  because  it  contains  the  element 
oxygen,  which  is  necessary  to  sustain  hfe.  A  dairy  cow  will 
breathe  considerably  more  than  200  pounds  of  air  in  twenty- 
four  hours,  or  more  than  twice  the  weight  of  feed  and  water 
consumed.  The  blood  is  purified  by  passing  through  the  lungs, 
where  the  oxygen  burns  the  waste  products  of  the  body. 

The  odors  must  be  removed  from  the  stable  if  sanitary 
products  are  to  be  secured,  and  the  barn  made  a  pleasant 
place  in  which  to  work.  A  well-ventilated  barn  is  noticeably 
free  from  the  odor  of  animal  bodies,  silage  and  manure. 

Carbon  dioxide  is  almost  entirely  lacking  in  fresh  country 
air,  but  in  every  cubic  foot  of  breathed  air  there  are  about  72 
cubic  inches  of  carbon  dioxide  gas.  At  the  same  time  the 
amount  of  life-giving  oxygen  has  been  reduced  by  about  100 
cubic  inches,  through  breathing.  An  excess  of  carbon  dioxide 
causes  sluggishness,  decreases  production,  and  lowers  the 
vitality  of  the  animals.  The  same  effect  of  sluggishness  and 
indifference  may  be  observed  in  a  group  of  people  in  a  badly 
ventilated  hall  or  building. 

An  average  cow  exhales  as  much  as  11 J  pounds  of  water 
in  one  day,  through  the  breath  and  the  pores  of  the  skin. 
Dry  air  when  breathed  gains  50  to  75  cubic  inches  of  moisture 
in  each  cubic  foot  of  air  breathed.  The  result  of  excessive 
moisture  is  to  cause  frosty  walls  and  noticeable  dampness  in 
the  barn.  Badly  ventilated  barns  are  steamy  on  cold  mornings. 
The  stock  are  more  susceptible  to  colds  and  pneumonia  when 
kept  in  a  damp  barn. 


COMPOSITION  OF  FRESH  AND  BREATHED  AIR 


Dry  Fresh  Air 
per  cent 

Breathed  Air 
per  cent 

Oxygen 

Carbon  dioxide 

20.94 
.029 
79.03 

16.16 
4.38 

Nitrogen,  etc 

Moisture 

74.46 
5.00 

92 


BARN  VENTILATION 


The  above  average  composition  of  dry  fresh  air  and  air 
once  breathed  shows  a  loss  of  about  4.75  per  cent  of  oxygen, 
and  a  gain  of  ahnost  the  same  amount  of  carbon  dioxide. 
There  is  an  increase  of  moisture  of  about  5  per  cent. 

Amount  Breathed. — Each  animal  housed  in  barns  breathes 
approximately  the  amounts  of  air  shown  by  the  following 
table: 


Animal 

Per  24  Hours, 
Cu.ft. 

Per  Hour, 

Cu.ft. 

Per  Min., 
Cu.ft. 

Horse 

Cow 

Pig 

Sheep 

3401 

2804 

1103 

726 

141 

116 

46 

30 

2.3 
1.9 

.76 
.5 

Standard  of  Purity. — The  purity  of  air  is  usually  indicated 
by  the  carbon  dioxide  content.  Pure  country  air  contains 
only  about  4  or  5  parts  of  carbon  dioxide  in  10,000  parts; 
very  bad  air  may  contain  60  or  70  parts  in  10,000.  It  is  assumed 
that  stable  air  should  not  contain  more  than  15  parts  of  carbon 
dioxide  in  10,000.  If  the  carbon  dioxide  content  of  once- 
breathed  air  is  4.38  per  cent,  as  indicated  in  the  above  table, 
the  breathed  air  of  the  stable  must  be  diluted  with  fresh  air 
to  reduce  the  content  of  carbon  dioxide  from  4.38  parts  per  100 
to  15  parts  per  10,000.  If  this  is  done  it  will  be  necessary  to 
introduce  96.7  per  cent  of  fresh  air  to  each  3.3  per  cent  of 
breathed  air.  In  other  words,  each  breath  drawn  should 
contain  not  more  than  3.3  per  cent  of  once-breathed  air, 
and  at  least  96.7  per  cent  of  fresh  air. 

To  maintain  this  condition  in  the  stable,  it  is  evident 
that  much  more  air  will  have  to  pass  through  the  stable  than 
is  actually  breathed.  The  following  table  shows  the  amount 
of  air  required  for  each  animal: 


RATE  OF  FLOW 
AMOUNT  OF  AIR  REQUIRED 


93 


Animal 

Air  per  Minute, 
Cu.ft. 

Horse 

Cow 

71 
59 
23 
15 

Pie 

Sheep 

Rate  of  Flow. — If  the  amount  of  air  required  in  the  barn 
is  known,  the  next  problem  is  to  design  a  system  of  flues  to 
introduce  this  amount.  The  area  of  the  flues  can  be  deter- 
mined if  the  rate  of  flow  is  known,  or  assumed.  The  rate  of 
flow  will  vary  with  the  length  of  flues,  weather  conditions, 
and  temperature.  As  a  basis  for  the  design,  the  rate  of  flow 
through  well-designed  flues  in  the  average  barn  is  assumed  as 
15,000  feet  per  hour,  or  250  feet  per  minute.  The  actual 
flow  will  often  exceed  this  amount,  and  under  certain  con- 
ditions the  flow  wiU  be  small,  or  even  reverse  the  normal 
direction. 

Motive  Powers. — If  it  were  possible  to  use  mechanical 
means  to  provide  a  forced  circulation  of  air  through  the 
flues,  the  rate  of  flow  could  be  accurately  figured.  However, 
in  barns  the  only  practical  means  of  securing  circulation  is  by 
natural  forces.  The  three  motive  powers  depended  upon  are 
wind  pressure,  wind  suction,  and  temperature  difference. 

By  wind  pressure  is  meant  the  force  of  the  wind  against 
the  side  of  the  building,  by  which  the  air  is  forced  into  the 
intakes,  or  fresh-air  flues.  The  pressure  is  noticeably  strong 
when  a  heavj^  flow  of  air  is  striking  the  barn,  and  in  cold  weather 
it  may  be  found  necessary  to  close  some  of  the  intakes  on  the 
windward  side.  The  calculation  of  the  wind  pressure  as  it 
affects  the  air  flow  cannot  be  determined  theoretically.  The 
force  due  to  a  20-mile  velocity  wind,  however,  is  about  2  pounds 
per  square  foot. 

Wind  suction  is  produced  by  the  action  of  the  wind  across 


94  BARN  VENTILATION 

the  top  of  the  ventilating  shaft,  or  through  the  cupola.  The 
action  is  similar  to  that  of  air  passing  across  the  top  of  a 
chimney.  As  long  as  there  is  a  normal  unobstructed  passage 
of  air,  the  draft  will  continue,  and  will  vary  with  the  velocity  of 
the  wind.  Trees  or  buildings  tend  to  interrupt  the  passage  of 
air,  and  in  certain  cases  there  may  be  a  back  draft  produced 
in  the  flue.  The  suction  is  so  irregular  that  it  cannot  be 
depended  upon  at  all  times  to  produce  circulation  in  the 
building.  The  length  of  the  flue  has  an  influence  on  the 
suction,  the  longer  flue  producing  the  greatest  draft.  The 
flues  for  foul  air  should  be  about  20  feet  long  or  longer  to 
maintain  the  normal  flow  of  air. 

Temperature  difference  has  the  greatest  influence  on  the 
circulation  of  air  in  barns.  Warm  air  is  lighter  than  cold 
air,  due  to  the  expansion  with  heat,  and  the  warm  stable  air 
tends  to  rise.  Each  degree  Fahrenheit  of  temperature  rise 
causes  a  change  of  volume  equal  to  ^ix  oi  the  original  volume. 
The  raising  of  the  temperature  1°  F.  in  a  space  of  500  cubic 
feet  will  force  approximately  1  cubic  foot  of  air  out  of  an 
opening  which  might  be  provided.  In  zero  weather  the  tem- 
perature difference  between  stable  air  and  outside  air  is  between 
40  and  50°.  The  difference  in  weight  between  the  warm  and 
cold  air  is  about  10  per  cent  under  these  conditions,  and  if 
suitable  flues  are  provided,  there  will  be  a  constant  outflow  of 
air.  As  the  air  passes  from  the  stable  to  the  outlet  it  is  cooled, 
and  the  decrease  in  volume  tends  to  create  a  partial  vacuum 
in  the  flue,  which  increases  the  flow. 

The  combined  action  of  these  three  motive  powers  may  be 
expected  to  produce  a  rate  of  flow  as  given  above,  of  250  feet 
per  minute,  if  the  flues  are  properly  placed  and  designed. 
Since  the  ventilating  systems  used  in  farm  barns  are  not 
automatic  in  action,  some  attention  will  need  to  be  given  as 
weather  conditions  vary.  In  extremely  cold  weather  it  may  be 
necessary  partially  to  close  the  flues,  to  prevent  excessive  air 
movement  and  a  consequent  drop  in  the  stable  temperature. 
In  mild,  calm  weather  the  forces  may  not  be  sufficient  to  ven- 
tilate the  barn  and  windows  will  have  to  be  opened.     The  design 


RUTHERFORD  SYSTEM 


95 


of  the  flues  is  based  upon  general  conditions,  and  personal 
attention  will  have  to  be  given  at  times. 

Systems  of  Ventilation. — The  two  recognized  systems  of 
barn  ventilation  used  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  are  the 
King  and  Rutherford  systems.  Window  openings,  holes  in 
the  wall,  and  hay  chutes  as  outtake  flues  are  not  recognized  as 
representing  any  system  of  controlled  ventilation. 

Rutherford  System. — Rutherford  of  Canada  designed  and 
installed  a  system  of  ventilation  in  some  of  the  Canadian 
Experimental  barns. 
Although  this  system 
is  not  widely  used  in 
barns  in  the  United 
States,  it  is  used  with 
success  in  Canada. 
Hog  houses  are  often 
ventilated  in  this  coun- 
try with  the  Ruther- 
ford system. 

The  distinguishing 
features  of  the  Ruther- 
ford system  lie  in  the 
installation  of  the  flues. 
The  fresh-air  inlets  are 
near  the  floor  hne  of 
the  stable,  and  the  foul 
air  is  taken  through 
flues  from  the  ceiling  line. 


Fig.  83.- 


-Barn  section  showing  Rutherford 
ventilating  system. 


All  flues  are  fitted  with  regulators 
or  adjusters,  in  order  partially  or  completely  to  shut  off  the 
flow  of  air  in  severe  weather.  It  was  assumed  that  the  effects 
of  impartial  ventilation  were  not  as  injurious  as  the  results  of 
very  low  temperatures  in  the  stable.  •  The  illustration  shows  the 
essential  features  of  the  Rutherford  system.  The  area  of  the 
flues  is  made  about  50  per  cent  smaller  in  the  Rutherford  sys- 
tem, as  compared  to  the  figures  given  later  for  the  King  system. 
King  System. — Practically  all  of  the  work  done  on  barn 
ventilation  in  the  United  States  at  present  is  based  upon  the 


96 


BARN  VENTILATION 


experiments  of  the  late  Professor  F.  H.  King  of  the  Wisconsin 
Experiment  Station.  There  have  been  some  adaptations  of 
King's  recommendations,  but  in  general  the  systems  of  ven- 
tilation sold  under  the  various  trade  names  are  considered  as 
coming  under  the  classification  of  the  King  system. 

The  essential  features  of  the  King  system  are  fresh-air 
flues,  entering  at  the  ceiling  line,  and  foul  air  outtakes 
extending  from  near  the  stable  floor  to  the  roof.  A  discus- 
sion of  the  construction  and  parts  of  the  King  system  is  given 
in  the  following  paragraphs. 

Area  and  Size  of  Flues. — To  determine  the  area  of  the 
flues  in  the  King  system,  it  is  only  necessary  to  know  the 
volume  of  air  required  and  the  rate  of  flow.  The  rate  of  flow 
has  been  assumed  as  being  15,000  feet  per  hour,  or  250  feet 
per  minute.  The  cubic  feet  of  air  for  each  animal  was  given 
in  a  previous  table.  To  find  the  area,  divide  the  number  of 
cubic  feet  per  minute  required  by  250,  the  velocity,  of  flow, 
and  the  result  will  be  the  area  of  flue,  in  square  feet.  In 
terms  of  square  inches,  the  area  of  flue  required  per  animal 
is  as  follows: 


Animal 

Area  in  Sq.  in. 

Horse             . , , 

40 

34 

13 

9 

Cow 

Pig             

Sheep 

The  above  figures  are  for  average-sized  animals,  and  if  any 
change  is  made,  the  area  should  be  increased  somewhat  over 
the  figures  noted,  to  allow  for  varying  results.  The  total 
area  of  flues  is  found  by  multiplying  the  above  figures  by  the 
number  of  head  of  each  class  of  stock  housed.  The  total 
required  area  will  then  be  divided  by  the  number  of  intake 
flues  and  outtakes  decided  upon. 

Intake  Flues. — The  intake  flue  of  these  systems  should  be 
designed  to  bring  fresh  air  ;nto  the  stable  and  prevent  the 


INTAKE  FLUES 


97 


escape  of  warm  air.  They  are  built  into  the  side  walls  of  the 
building,  entering  at  or  near  the  foundation  line,  and  opening 
into  the  stable  at  the  ceiling,  in  front  of  the  animals.  The 
flues  are  made  to  trap  the  warm  air  in  the  building  by  making 
the  inner  opening  at  least  4  or  4|  feet  of  vertical  distance  above 
the  outside  opening. 

The  thickness  of  the  intake  flue  is  limited  by  the  thickness 


A.rfPw  ear  ^^/saAira 


A/IS  epvtca- 


jef?<5/«r»» 


Fig.  84. — Air  intake  for  a  King  ventilating 
system  when  the  animals  face  in. 


Fig.  85. — Air  intake  for  King 
ventilating  system  where 
the  animals  face  out. 


of  the  wall.  With  2  by  8-inch  studding  in  the  wall,  the  actual 
thickness  is  about  7f  inches.  The  stable  side  of  the  flue  should 
be  insulated  from  the  warmth  of  the  stable  to  prevent  conden- 
sation of  moisture.  This  insulation  is  made  by  means  of  a  dead 
air  space,  and  double  covering,  which  will  further  reduce  the 
thickness  of  the  flue.     With  a  6-inch  wall,  the  flue  will  be 


98 


BARN  VENTILATION 


about  4|  to  5  inches  thick,  and  in  an  8-inch  wall  the  effective 
thickness  will  be  only  6  to  7  inches.  The  width  of  the  flue 
may  be  from  10  to  16  inches.  If  the  flues  are  correctly  spaced, 
they  will  not  need  to  be  wider  than  12  to  14  inches.  The 
size  of  the  flue  is  increased  at  the  entrance,  to  offset  the  loss  of 
area  due  to  the  screening,  and  the  size  of  the  stable  opening 
is  increased  to  avoid  possible  drafts.  The  turns  in  the  flue 
tend  to  reduce  the  velocity,  and  these  points  should  be  made 
larger. 

Spacing  of  Flues. — In  order  to  provide  a  good  circulation 


Fig.  86. — Showing  diffusion  of  air  with  a  well-planned  ventilating 

system. 


of  air  in  the  barn,  the  intakes  should  be  widely  distributed, 
and  the  total  area  should  not  be  afforded  by  only  a  small 
number  of  flues.  In  general  the  flues  will  be  spaced  6  to  10 
feet  apart,  and  not  over  10  feet  in  any  case. 

Construction  of  Flues. — If  of  wood,  the  flues  are  built  into 
the  barn  at  the  time  the  walls  are  constructed.  The  opening 
for  the  flue  is  framed  as  for  any  other  opening  in  the  wall.  The 
studding  may  form  the  sides  of  the  flue,  and  the  siding  may 
be  used  for  the  outer  covering..    Inside  the  stable  there  should 


OUTTAKES 


99 


be  two  thicknesses  of  material  to  insulate  the  flue  from  the 
stable,  one  thickness  of  material  being  placed  inside  the  stud- 
ding and  the  other 
layer  over  the  stud- 
ding, as  shown  in  Fig. 
83.  The  turns  should 
be  smooth,  in  order  to 
maintain  the  velocity 
of  the  air,  and  sheet 
metal  should  be  used 
to  secure  a  gradual 
deflection.  When  the 
stock  faces  the  center 
of  the  barn,  the  flues 
are  carried  to  the  center 
between  the  j  oists.  The 
outside  face  of  the  flue 
should  be  covered  with 
a  galvanized  screen,  to   Fig.  87.— Outtake  flues  for  King  ventilating 

keep  out  birds,  trash,  '^'^^"^  ^^^^  ^^^^^^  ^^'^  ^• 

and  dirt.  The  inside  opening  should  be  covered  with  an 
adjustable  register,  which  can  be  opened  or  closed  to  regulate 
the  flow  of  air. 

Metal  flues  as  a  part  of  the  complete  system  may  be  used 
for  the  intakes.  They  are  smooth,  easily  installed,  and 
efficient.  Basement  barns,  or  old  barns  to  be  remodeled, 
present  diflicult  problems  in  the  installation  of  flues.  The 
principal  problem  is  to  trap  the  warm  air  in  the  barn,  and  yet 
secure  as  direct  passage  as  possible  of  the  fresh  air. 

Outtakes. — The  outtake  flues  extend  from  near  the  floor 
of  the  stable  to  the  ridge  of  the  roof.  The  flues  are  taken  from 
the  rear  of  the  stalls,  in  order  to  avoid  carrying  the  foul  air 
past  the  heads  of  the  animals.  The  location  should  be  made  to 
keep  the  flues  away  from  a  silo  chute,  or  door,  which  might 
interfere  with  the  correct  action  of  the  outtake.  In  the 
stable  the  flues  must  not  block  a  stall,  pen,  or  driveway.  In 
the  loft,  the  flue  must  be  kept  5  feet  away  from  the  carrier 


100 


BARN  VENTILATION 


track,  in  order  not  to  interfere  with  the  passage  of  a  fork  load 
of  hay.  In  the  "  face-in  "  arrangement  of  the  stock,  the  flues 
can  be  carried  up  inside  the  roof  rafters  without  obstructing 
the  loft.     The  object  of  the  outtake-flue  construction  is  to 

afford  a  direct  passage 
of  the  air  from  stable 
to  roof.  The  flues  are 
carried  from  the  floor 
Hne  to  prevent  exces- 
sive cooling  which 
might  result  from  tak- 
ing the  air  from  the 
upper  part  of  the 
stable. 

Spacing  of  Out- 
takes. — The  outtakes 
are  comparatively  few 
in  number  as  compared 
with  the  intakes,    the 

Fig.  88.-Outtake  flues  for  King  ventulting  ^^^^^  number  depend- 
system  when  animals  face  out.  ing  on  the  facing  of  the 

stock,  and  length  of 
barn.  If  the  stock  face  the  outer  wall,  there  is  usually  one 
outtake  for  each  cupola,  although  they  may  be  in  pairs — one 
on  each  side  of  the  driveway.  In  the  "  face-in  "  plan  the 
outtakes  are  in  pairs,  two  flues  to  each  ventilator.  In  short 
buildings,  not  more  than  34  feet  long,  one  cupola  and  one  or 
two  flues  are  sufficient.  Barns  up  to  74  feet  long  require  two 
cupolas,  from  75  to  100-foot  barns  should  have  three  cupolas, 
and  in  longer  barns  they  should  be  spaced  about  25  feet 
apart.  Care  should  be  taken  to  locate  the  flues  with  reference 
to  the  floor  plan  to  avoid  wasting  space. 

Size. — The  area  of  each  flue  is  determined  by  dividing 
the  total  area  required  by  the  number  of  flues  to  be  installed. 
One  outtake  will,  in  general,  care  for  five  or  six  intakes.  Square 
or  round  flues  are  the  most  economical  and  efficient,  though 
a  rectangular  shape  may  be  preferred  to  suit  conditions.     The 


CONSTRUCTrON/ 


:  --t  -Viot 


maximum  size  for  any  one  outtake  should  be  about  2  square 
feet.  The  flues  are  enlarged  at  turns  or  bends  to  keep  the 
effective  area  the  same  throughout. 

Construction. — The  outtake  flues  may  be  built  of  wood 
or  metal.  The  wood  flues  are  lower  in  cost,  and  when  properly 
built  should  last  fully  as  long  as  the  metal  flues.  The  construc- 
tion consists  of  two  thicknesses  of  matched  lumber,  with  building 
paper  between,  to  make  the  flue  tight.  Moisture-resisting 
wood,  such  as  white  pine  or  cypress,  is  preferable.  The  flues 
should  be  built  inside  the  studding  and  rafter  line,  and  not 


Fig.  89.— Detail  of  outtake 
flue  construction. 


Fig.  90. — Detail  of  outtake  flue  at 
ridge  of  barn. 


between  the  framing  members;  if  they  are  placed  next  to  the 
sheathing,  they  will  be  cold,  and  will  tend  to  frost,  and  fail 
to  carry  away  the  moisture.  If  built  inside  the  rafters,  there 
is  a  dead  air  space  formed  that  aids  in  insulating  the  flue. 
The  outtakes  should  in  all  cases  be  made  tight  from  the  stable 
to  the  ridge,  and  be  tightly  boxed  to  the  cupola.  Openings 
in  the  loft  destroy  the  draft,  and  make  the  system  inefficient. 

Metal  flues  are  satisfactory  'if  properly  constructed. 
Home-made  metal  flues  are  hkely  to  be  unsatisfactory,  for  the 
reason  that  they  are  not  properly  insulated.  The  flues  will 
be  cold  in  the  loft,  and  the  moisture  in  the  outgoing  air  will 
condense  on  the  metal,  and  run  back  into  the  stable.  If  metal 
is  used,  it  should  be  made  especially  for  the  ventilating  system. 


im 


JiARN  VENTILATION 


of   rust-resisting,   galvanized   iron   or   steel,    and   thoroughly 
insulated. 


Fig.  91. — Metal  outtake  flue  in  hog  barn. 

Cupolas. — The  size  of  the  ventilator  should  be  determined, 

so  that  the  same,  or  a  greater  area 
is  secured  in  the  drum  of  the 
cupola,  than  in  the  outtake  flues. 
The  object  of  the  cupola  is  to 
protect  the  opening  of  the  flue 
from  the  elements,  keep  out  birds, 
prevent  back  drafts  as  far  as 
possible,  and  assist  in  drawing  the 
foul  air  from  the  barn.  The  well- 
designed  steel  ventilator  accom- 
pHshes  these  objects.  The  home- 
built  wood  cupola  accomplishes 
none  of  the  objects  satisfactorily. 
For  any  other  purpose  than  orna- 
mentation, the  wood  cupola  should 
be  replaced  with  the  more  modern 
steel  cupola.  The  size  is  usually 
specified  by  the  diameter  of  the 
drum,  from  which  the  area  can  be 
determined. 

The  steel  cupola  is  a  conductor  of  electricity,  and  if  a 


Fig.  92. — Metal  ventilating 
cupola  in  place. 


TEMPERATURE  CONTROL  103 

copper  cable  conductor  is  fastened  to  the  base,  and  extended 
a  few  feet  into  the  ground,  an  efficient  lightning  rod  is  obtained. 

Temperature  Control. — In  the  Rutherford  system  the 
temperature  is  controlled  by  opening  or  closing  the  flues,  and 
reducing  the  circulation.  If  the  King  system  is  installed,  as 
discussed  above,  there  is  Httle  danger  of  low  temperatures  in 
the  stable  of  the  well-built  barn.  If  the  barn  becomes  too 
warm,  the  air  should  be  taken  from  the  ceiling,  as  the  warm 
air  rises.  To  do  this,  there  should  be  a  trap  door  in  each  out- 
take,  at  the  ceiling  line,  which  may  be  opened.  It  was 
formerly  thought  that  the  air  at  the  floor  fine  contained  the 
greater  part  of  the  carbon  dioxide.  In  the  well-stocked 
barn  the  air  is  in  constant  circulation,  and  the  amount  of  car- 
bon dioxide  at  the  ceihng  seems  to  be  about  the  same  as  at  the 
floor.  The  reason  for  extending  the  flues  to  the  floor  is  to 
trap  the  warm  air,  and  prevent  too  low  a'  temperature  in  the 
stable. 

Failure  to  Ventilate. — The  foul-smeUing  barn,  frosty  and 
damp  walls,  and  sluggish,  indifferent  stock  are  indications 
that  the  barn  is  not  properly  ventilated.  Barns  with  no 
provision  for  ventilation  show  the  above  conditions  in  a 
majority  of  cases.  Makeshift  ventilating  systems,  such  as 
the  use  of  hay  chutes  for  outtakes,  louvre  windows,  or  wood 
cupolas  for  outtakes,  and  windows  for  intakes,  caiise.large  num- 
bers of  failures,  and  is  a  wrong  attitude  toward  ventilation. 
The  barn  which  has  a  complete  system  of  ventilation  installed 
is  properly  ventilated  in  most  cases.  The  failures  which  have 
occurred  can  be  traced  to  faulty  placing  of  the  parts,  too  large 
an  amount  of  cubic  space  per  animal,  or  the  housing  of  very 
young,  or  only  a  few  head  of  stock  in  the  barn.  If  these 
causes  for  failure  are  removed,  there  is  little  doubt  that  the 
system  will  operate,  provided  some  personal  attention  is 
given. 

Ventilation  Tests. — It  is  possible  to  determine  the  effici- 
ency of  a  ventilating  system  by  means  of  certain  tests.  The 
average  reader  is  interested  principally  in  the  design  of  a- 
S3^stem  for  best  results,  rather  than  the  theory  of  the  test. 


104 


BARN  VENTILATION 


The  main  points  of  a  ventilation  test  are  mentioned  here. 
If  the  student  reader  has  access  to  the  necessary  instruments, 
it  is  suggested  that  a  test  be  arranged. 

The  apparatus  needed  for  a  test  of  a  ventilation  system 
is:  Air  meter;  wet-  and  dry-bulb  thermometers;  and  instru- 
ments for  determining  the  carbon  dioxide  content  of  the  air. 

The  data  secured  should  cover  the  measurements  of  all 
parts  of  the  system,  the  theoretical  design,  to  check  the  actual 
installation,  and  remarks  with  reference  to  conditions  in  the 


Fig.  93. — ^Recording  thermometer  used  in  connection  with  ventilation 

studies. 


stable.  The  temperature  should  be  determined  in  the  stable, 
and  outside.  By  means  of  the  wet  bulb,  and  handbook  tables, 
the  relative  humidity  can  be  found.  Samples  of  stable  air 
taken  in  different  parts  of  the  stable  will  show  the  carbon 
dioxide  content. 

The  results  of  the  test  will  show  the  rate  of  air  flow,  the 
inside  and  outside  'temperatures,  and  the  degree  of  purity  of 
the  stable  air.  Such  a  test  should  show  the  faults,  if  there  are 
any,  in  the  design  of  the  system,  indicate  the  remedy  for 
trouble,  and  is  of  value  as  a  guide  to  future  installations  of 
similar  character. 


PROBLEM  OF  VENTILATION 


105 


Problem  of  Ventilation. — In  order  to  show  the  manner 
in  which  the  requirements  for  a  ventilation  system  are 
ascertained,  the  following  problem  is  given:  Assume  a  general- 
purpose  barn,  with  30  head  of  dairy  cows,  10  horses,  and  15 
calves.  Find  the  number  and  size 
of  intakes,  outtakes,  and  cupolas. 

Each  dairy  cow  requires  a  fresh 
air  supply  of  59  cubic  feet  per 
minute.  For  30  head  the  amount 
is  1770  cubic  feet  per  minute.  Ten 
head  of  horses,  requiring  71  feet 
each,  gives  710  cubic  feet.  Fifteen 
calves  will  need  as  much  air  as 
about  half  that  number  of  cows, 
or  30  times  15  or  450  cubic  feet. 

The  total  air  flow  will  then 
need  to  be  2930  cubic  feet  per 
minute.  Assuming  that  the  aver- 
age flow  of  air  through  the  system 
will  be  250  feet  per  minute,  2930 
divided  by  250  will  equal  approxi- 
mately 12  square  feet,  area  of  flues. 

If  the  thickness  of  the  wall 
permitted  a  6-inch  flue  for  the  intake,  and  they  are  assumed 
to  be  the  average  width  of  14  inches,  each  flue  affords  84 
square  inches  of  intake.  Approximately  twenty  intakes  are 
required,  or  ten  on  each  side  of  the  barn. 

Six  outtake  flues,  each  affording  2  square  feet  area,  or  a 
size  of  12  by  24  inches  each,  provides  sufficient  area  of  foul-air 
outtakes.  The  size  and  number  might  be  varied,  but  the 
area  should  still  be  12  square  feet.  If  the  stock  face  the 
center,  each  pair  of  flues  will  be  carried  to  one  cupola. 

Three  cupolas  are  required.  The  standard  size  of  24-inch 
drum,  with  an  area  of  about  3.14  square  feet,  is  insufficient. 
The  next  larger  size  of,  say,  28  inches,  will  then  be  used. 
Two  24-inch  and  one  30-inch  ventilator  might  also  be  used, 
and  the  size  of  the  outtakes  varied  accordingly. 


Fig.  94. — Apparatus  for  deter- 
mining carbon  dioxide  con- 
tent of  air. 


CHAPTER  XII 
HOG  HOUSES 

The  hog  house  was  almost  the  last  of  the  principal  farm 
buildings  to  be  developed,  but  in  recent  years  much  atten- 
tion has  been  given  to  hog-house  construction  and  sanitation. 
The  change  has  been  from  the  poorly  built,  dark,  cold,  and 
dirty  structure,  to  the  modern,  sanitary  hog  house.  Hogs  are 
more  numerous  than  any  other  class  of  farm  animals,  and 
yield  the  quickest  returns.  On  January  1,  1919,  there  were 
75J  milhon  hogs  on  farms,  with  a  farm  value  estimated  at  more 
than  IJ  billion  dollars. 

Proper  housing  results  in  a  more  sanitary  farmstead,  and 
a  more  healthful  place  for  the  hogs.  Fewer  losses  result  from 
disease  and  more  pigs  are  raised  per  litter;  two  litters  per 
year  are  possible,  with  early  spring  farrowing.  Labor  saving 
results  from  good  practical  houses.  For  pure-bred  breeding 
stock,  it  is  essential  that  the  stock  be  handled  in  good  quarters. 

Essential  Features  of  Good  Hog  Houses. — The  Iowa 
Experiment  Station  has  Hsted  the  essential  features  of  hog 
houses  as  follows ; 

1.  Warmth. 

2.  Dryness. 

3.  Light,  and  direct  sunlight. 

4.  Shade  in  summer. 

5.  Ventilation. 

6.  Safety  and  comfort. 

7.  Convenience. 

8.  Serviceability. 

9.  Sufficient  size. 

'l06 


SANITATION  107 

10.  Durability. 

11.  Reasonable  first  cost. 

12.  Low  maintenance. 

13.  Pleasing  appearance. 

The  essential  features  listed  above  may  be  classified  under 
the  general  essentials  of  sanitation,  planning,  and  construction. 

Sanitation. — It  is  generally  understood  that  for  success 
with  hogs,  it  is  necessary  to  pay  careful  attention  to  the  sani- 
tary requirements  of  the  hog  house.  Little  pigs  must  be  kept 
warm  and  dry.  Plenty  of  light  and  especially  direct  sunUght 
is  essential  in  the  house,   in   the  spring  and  h\\  farrowing 


Fig.  95,-^Half  monitor  type  of  hog  house. 

seasons.  Proper  drainage  of  the  floor,  pen,  and  feeding  yard 
is  necessary.  Mud  holes,  wet  bedding,  and  muddy  feeding 
yards  waste  feed,  and  promote  unhealthful  conditions.  Ven- 
tilation is  necessary  in  the  winter  season.  The  essentials  of 
sunhght  and  ventilation  are  of  such  importance  that  they  will 
be  discussed  more  fully  in  the  following  chapter. 

Planning. — The  essentials  of  size,  convenience,  safety, 
and  comfort  are  all  possible  by  careful  consideration  of  the 
plan.  Size  of  pens,  width  of  alleys,  and  equipment  for  the 
safety  and  comfort  of  the  stock  have  been  largely  provided 
for  in  the  more  widely  used  plans. 

Construction. — Durability,  appearance,  maintenance  cost, 
and  economy  of  construction  are  largely  problems  of  construc- 
tion.    If  the  best  principles  of  construction  are  followed,  good 


108  HOG  HOUSES 

results  will  be  secured — the  actual  construction  of  the  hog  house 
is  comparatively  simple. 

General  Problems. — Since  there  are  a  large  number  of 
cases  in  which  hog  raising  is  one  of  the  principal  projects  of 
the  farm,  further  attention  should  be  given  to  some  of  the 
details  relating  to  housing  and  equipment.  Among  them  are 
feed  storage;  artificial  heat;  outside  runways;  feeding  and 
watering  equipment;   and  hog-house  equipment. 

Feed  Storage. — In  the  permanent  type  of  hog  house  a 
feed  storage  room  should  be  included.  For  the  individual 
houses,  it  is  desirable  that  the  feed  supply  be  near  at  hand, 
and  provision  should  be  made  to  handle  the  feed  by  the  wagon 
load.  Mixed  feed  and  purchased  concentrates  should  be  stored 
near  where  they  are  to  be  used.  For  the  large  feeder  it  is  well 
to  have  the  corn  crib  close  to  the  feeding  yard. 

Artificial  Heat. — A  heating  system  is  not  generally  included 
in  the  plan.  If  pure-bred  hogs  are  raised,  it  may  be  desirable 
to  install  heating  equipment.  A  small  stove  in  the  feed  alley 
or  store  room  may  be  the  means  of  saving  chilled  pigs.  In 
a  few  cases  steam  or  warm-air  heating  systems  have  been 
installed  in  the  hog  house.  A  lighted  lantern  in  the  individual 
house  may  be  needed  in  early  spring  at  farrowing  time. 

Outside  Runways. — Regardless  of  the  type  of  house,  it 
is  desirable  to  provide  individual  pens  or  runways  outside  the 
building  for  the  sow  and  litter,  or  for  the  herd  boar.  For 
little  pigs,  a  separate  pen,  or  creep,  either  inside  the  house, 
or  in  the  yard,  makes  it  possible  to  begin  separate  feeding  at 
an  early  age. 

Feeding  and  Watering. — The  self  feeder  has  proven  satis- 
factory for  feeding  growing  pigs,  and  its  use  has  eliminated 
much  of  the  labor  of  feeding.  The  feeders  may  be  made  to 
hold  a  small  load  of  feed  at  one  time,  and  slight  attention  is 
needed,  except  to  keep  the  feed  supplied.  Running  water 
to  the  hog  house,  and  to  each  pen,  greatly  reduces  the  labor  of 
caring  for  the  stock. 

Hog-house  Equipment. — Modern  methods  in  the  care  and 
handUng  of  hogs,  especially,  breeding  stock,  call  for  the  use 


MOVABLE  HOG  HOUSES 


109 


of  manufactured  equipment.  Steel  fixtures  are  superior  to 
wooden  equipment  from  the  standpoint  of  appearance,  sani- 
tation, and  convenience.  The  interior  equipment  is  in  many- 
respects  similar  to  the  steel  equipment  for  the  dairy  barn. 
Steel  panel  for  pens  allows  the  passage  of  sunlight,  and  aids 
sanitation.  Movable  panels  permit  of  throwing  several 
pens  together  into  a  feeding  pen.  Swinging  front  panels  over 
the  trough  make  it  convenient  for  feeding.     The  same  types 


'CK03S  •SErCiriOJ^   AB-  -  P-RO^T-  &L.£VA,TI0/1< 

Fig.  96. — Pen  trough  and  swinging  panel. 


of  litter  and  feed  carriers  and  ventilators  used  in  the  barn  are 
suitable  for  the  hog  house.  In  addition,  hog  troughs,  swill 
carriers,  guard  rails  and  drains  are  essential  in  the  best  equipped 
hog  houses. 

Movable  Hog  Houses 

The  movable  house  is  widely  used,  and  successful  under 
a  variety  of  conditions.  It  may  be  the  only  type  used  on  many 
farms,  and  on  others  it  is  used  to  supplement  the  permanent 
or  centralized  house.  The  type  is  of  sufficient  importance  to 
justify  a  discussion  of  the  advantages,  and  the  construction 
in  some  detail. 

Advantages. — The  advantages  of  the  movable  houses  as 
given  are  in  comparison  with  the  centrahzed  or  community 


110  HOG  HOUSES 

type.  In  many  cases  the  use  of  both  types  is  recommended, 
one  being  used  to  supplement  the  other. 

The  location  of  the  small  house  may  be  changed  to  meet 
conditions.  Pastures  may  be  changed,  shelter  provided  for 
hogs  harvesting  corn,  or  following  cattle,  and  isolation  is  quickly 
secured.  For  sows  at  farrowing  time,  it  may  be  desirable  to 
move  the  shelter  to  a  quiet  location.  There  is  less  danger  of 
crowding  and  fighting  when  the  houses  are  separated. 

Sanitation  is  promoted  with  the  movable  house,  since 
surroundings  may  be  changed;  the  herd  is  separated;  and  sick 
animals   isolated.      As  feeding  is    usually  done   outside   the 


Fig.  97. — The  Iowa  movable  hog  house. 

house,  there  is  little  danger  of  the  pens  becoming  foul  and 
damp. 

The  construction  of  the  movable  house  is  simple,  and  the 
building  can  be  done  in  the  winter  season,  or  at  other  times 
when  the  farm  help  is  available. 

For  renters,  beginners,  and  owners  of  small  herds,  the 
movable  house  affords  a  good  shelter  for  a  small  outlay  of 
money.  It  is  possible  to  begin  operations  on  a  small  scale, 
and  gradually  increase  the  capacity  of  the  houses  as  the  herd 
justifies  added  equipment.  For  the  renter,  the  houses  may  be 
taken  when  the  tenant  moves  from  farm  to  farm. 

Disadvantages  of  the  Movable  Type. — When  used  exclu- 
sively for  housing,  the  small  houses  have  certain  disadvantages, 
but  these  disadvantages  are  principally  arguments  for  the 
community  house,  and  will  be  discussed  as  such. 


MOVABLE  HOG  HOUSES 


111 


T3rpes  of  Movable  Houses. — There  is  a  wide  variation  in 
the  shape  of  the  movable  house,  and  some  difference  in  the 
shape  and  arrangement  and  location  of  doors  and  windows. 
Most  of  the  common  types  are  satisfactory,  however.  The 
most  common  types  are  the  gable-roof,  combination,  and 
A-shaped  houses. 

Gable-roof  House. — This  type  has  a  vertical  side  wall 
to  a  height  of  about  2|  feet,  and  thus  utilizes  the  full  area  of 
the  floor.  The  roof  is  of  two  equal  pitches.  End  doors  are 
provided  for  entrance,  and  large  doors  are  placed  in  one  slope 
of  the  roof,  for  airing  and  sunlight.     The  side  walls  may  be 


IVA'^Wir»el    bPHbiri^ 


H3'- 


•P-TiAAlly^Q  ••XOWA*  •  GABI-ft  •'ROOT*--  HOG^HOOGS-* 

Fig.  98. — Framing  details  of  Iowa  movable  hog  house. 


nailed  tightly  to  the  studding,  or  they  may  be  hinged  at  the 
top  to  open  outward,  to  provide  shade  in  the  summer. 

Combination-roof  House. — The  object  of  the  roof  with 
unequal  pitches  as  used  in  this  house  is  to  afford  more  head- 
room and  more  direct  sunlight  when  the  house  is  faced  to  the 
south.  The  construction  is  not  essentially  different  from  the 
gable-roof  house. 

A-shaped  House. — This  type  of  house  does  not  have  side 
walls,  but  the  A-shaped  roof  is  carried  to  the  floor.  This 
simplifies  the  framing,  and  reduces  the  amount  of  material 
needed.  The  angle  of  the  roof  with  the  floor  affords  a  space 
which  protects  the  little  pigs  from  being  crushed  by  the  mother. 


112 


HOG  HOUSES 


The  sides  may  be  hinged  at  the  side  or  top,  forming  doors. 
The  door  hinged  at  the  top  provides  shade,  while  the  doors 
hinged  at  the  side  permit  of  better  airing  and  direct  sunhght. 

Construction. — Except  for  the  minor  variations  mentioned 
the  construction  of  all  of  the  movable  houses  is  practically 
the  same.  The  size  of  movable  house  found  most  satisfactory 
is  6  by  8  feet. 

The  runners  or  the  sills  of  the  house  should  be  made  of 
4  by  4-inch  fir,   cypress,   or  other    moisture-resisting  wood, 


-r-RAyniATG    A  sHAT>er- woe  •  Hooaft" 

Fig.  99. — Framing  details  of  "  A  "  shape  hog  house. 


beveled  at  the  ends  for  easy  moving.  For  the  floor  2  by  12- 
inch  lumber  is  necessary,  the  planks  being  nailed  directly  to 
the  runners.  One-inch  material  does  not  afford  a  rigid  floor. 
The  floor  is  omitted  in  the  very  cheap  houses,  but  this  is  not 
recommended. 

Framing  is  entirely  of  2  by  4-inch  material,  usually 
yellow  pine.  Enough  framing  should  be  used  to  insure  a 
rigid,  strong  construction,  and  one  which  can  be  safely  moved. 

One  thickness  of  covering  is  all  that  is  usually  needed. 
Eight  or  10-inch  shiplap  is  the  best  material  for  the  covering, 
though   plain   boards   with   battens   may   be   used.     Further 


MOVABLE  HOG-HOUSES 


113 


protection  may  be  secured  by  covering  the  house  with  prepared 
roofing,  but  this  is  not  often  done. 

The  doors  consist  of  entrance,  shade,  and  roof  doors.  The 
entrance  should  be  2  by  2J  feet  for  average  stock,  and  larger 
for  heavy  stock.  The  shade  doors  are  hinged  at  the  top  and 
open  outward.  Roof  doors  should  be  in  the  east  or  south  side 
of  the  house,  to  take  advantage  of  the  direct  sunlight.  All 
doors  should  be  well  braced,  and  fastened  with  heavy  hinges. 

Guard  rails  are  necessary  to  prevent  the  pigs  from  being 
crushed  against  the  wall  by  the  heavy  sow.     Two  by  4  or 


I  la  tor 


-VEi^TlLATOR   •  .MOVABLE*  HOG  •  HOOSfe - 
Fig.  100. — Detail  of  ventilation  for  Iowa  movable  hog  house. 


2  by  6-inch  material  is  set  6  inches  above  the  floor,  and  the 
same  distance  from  the  wall. 

The  sanitary  requirements  of  light  and  ventilation  are 
not  so  easy  to  secure  in  the  small  house.  Ventilation  is 
secured  by  means  of  a  small  opening  under  the  ridge,  protected 
by  a  board  nailed  to  the  projecting  roof  board.  Small  gable 
doors  in  the  end  of  the  house  may  be  left  open  in  mild  weather. 
Direct  sunlight  may  be  secured  by  leaving  the  roof  doors  open. 
In  the  gable  or  combination  roof  houses,  window  sash  may 
be  fitted  into  the  door  frame. 

From  350  to  425  board  feet  of  lumber  is  required  for  the 
construction  of  the  movable  house,  in  addition  to  the  necessary 
hinges,  nails,  and  bolts.  The  cost  will  vary  from  $20  to  $30 
.per  house. 


114  HOG  HOUSES 

Community  Hog  Houses 

The  development  of  the  farmstead  group  with  its  well- 
planned  and  permanent  buildings  favors  the  large,  permanent 
type  of  hog  house.  Fall  litters,  scarcity  of  labor,  and  the 
increase  in  the  pure-bred  hog  business  has  tended  to  promote 
the  use  of  the  community  house.  Careful  attention  to  planning 
in  recent  years  has  resulted  in  well-planned,  sanitary,  conven- 
ient, and  good-appearing  hog  houses. 

There  are  several  advantages  in  favor  of  this  type  of  house 
as  compared  with  the  small  movable  house,  and  these  points 
will  be  discussed  in  the  following  paragraphs. 


Fig.  101. — Gambrel-roof  type  of  hog  house. 

Durability. — The  use  of  concrete,  tile,  and  brick  is  possible 
in  the  large  hog  house;  heavier  framing  and  better  workman- 
ship are  usually  secured;  concrete  floors  and  foundations 
are  also  possible. 

Compact  Housing. — Close  attention  to  the  herd  is  possible 
in  the  community  house.  If  necessary  the  herdsman  can 
remain  at  the  building  during  the  farrowing  season.  Feeding 
operations  can  be  carried  on  within  the  one  shelter,  and  feeding 
floors,  feed  rooms,  and  feeding  equipment  may  be  used  to 
better  advantage.  Steel  equipment,  litter  carriers  and  ven- 
tilators are  possible  in  the  compact  arrangement  of  the  com- 
munity house. 

Sanitary  Features. — The  concrete  or  tile  floors,  and  pos- 
sibly the  masonry  walls  of  the  community  house  favor  sani- 


COMMUNITY  HOG  HOUSES  115 

tation.  The  use  of  steel  pens  and  troughs  Is  better  than  the 
cheaper  equipment  necessary  in  the  small  house.  Windows 
may  be  located  for  a  maximum  of  sunlight  on  the  farrowing 


I 


offiiXffri 

Fig.  102. — Floor  plan  of  community  hog  house. 

pens,  and  the  result  is  warmth,  dryness,  and  cleanhness  not 
possible  in  the  individual  house.  Artificial  heat  may  be 
installed  for  use  in  the  early  spring. 

Greater    Production    Possible. — The    community    houses 
enable  many  farmers  to  raise  two  litters  per  year,  which  is 


Fig.  103. — Metal  pens,  community  hog  house 

considered  profitable  by  a  majority  of  hog  producers.  The 
better  sanitation  and  greater  conveniences  prevent  excessive 
losses  of  young  pigs. 


116  HOG  HOUSES 

Appearance  and  Construction. — The  community  house 
justifies  more  care  in  planning  and  construction,  and  better 
materials.  The  result  will  usually  be  improved  appearance 
and  better  construction.  Feeding  floors,  individual  runways, 
farrowing  pens,  and  other  features  increase  the  value  of  the 
community  house.  The  selHng  value  of  the  farm  and  of 
breeding  hogs  is  increased  if  the  building  is  well  made,  and 
well  equipped  to  exhibit  the  stock. 

Location. — The  hog  house  should  be  farther  from  the 
house  than  the  other  buildings,  to  avoid  objectionable  odors. 
Nearness  to  cribs,  pastures,  and  cattle  feeding  yards  should 
be  considered.     Slope  of  the  lots  and  location  for  protection 


Fig,  104. — Iowa  sunlit  hog  house. 

are  important.  The  setting  of  the  building  for  sunlight  will 
be  considered  later. 

Width. — The  best  width  of  the  hog  house  is  that  necessary 
to  accommodate  two  rows  of  pens,  with  an  alley  between. 
The  average  pen  is  8  feet  long,  and  the  alley  4  or  8  feet  wide, 
according  to  whether  or  not  it  is  to  be  used  for  a  driveway. 
The  usual  width  of  house  will  vary  from  20  to  26  feet.  If  the 
wider  house  is  used,  the  driveway  may  be  used  as  a  feeding 
floor,  or  may  be  divided  into  temporary  pens  for  farrowing. 
The  alley  provides  a  suitable  place  in  which  to  feed  young 
pigs. 

Length. — The  length  of  the  hog  house  will,  as  in  the  other 
buildings,  depend  on  the  number  of  head  of  stock.  Besides 
the  desired  number  of  p^ns,  the  house  should  have  a  feed  room 
and  store  room,  or  a  place  for  the  necessary  equipment.     Com- 


COMMUNITY  HOG  HOUSES  117 

mon  lengths  are  from  30  to  60  feet,  with  from  eight  to  eighteen 
farrowing  pens. 

Pens. — X^e  most  widely  used  pen  is  6  feet  wide  by  8  feet 
long,  though  occasionally  it  is  7  or  8  feet  each  way.  Small 
pens  with  removable  partitions  may  be  thrown  together  after 
the  farrowing  season,  and  used  for  feeding  pens.  The  front 
of  the  pen  next  to  the  feed  alley  is  taken  up  by  the  trough  and 
gate,  the  rear  half  of  the  pen  being  used  as  a  nesting  place. 

Each  pen  should  have  a  door  to  the  feed  alley  and  one 
opening  into  a  yard  or  exercise  pen.  In  the  south-front  house 
the  north  door  is  sometimes  omitted,  and  the  north  wall 
banked.  Fenders,  trough,  gates,  doors,  and  panels  consti- 
tute the  features  of  the  farrowing  pen. 

Doors  and  Gates. — Inside  gates  should  be  2  feet  4  inches 
clear  width.  All  gates  should  open  in  the  same  direction,  and 
in  the  same  relative  part  of  the  pen,  being  made  of  the  same 
material  as  the  pen  partitions.  Outside  doors  should  open 
from  each  pen  in  most  cases,  and  should  be  made  of  matched 
lumber,  firmly  braced;  the  door  frame  may  be  of  wood  or 
masonry.  Partition  gates,  made  to  shde  upward,  are  some- 
times used  to  connect  pens.  In  this  way  a  creep  may  be  made 
for  feeding  young  pigs  separate  from  the  sows.  Gate  and 
corner  posts  are  4  by  4  wood,  or  may  be  made  of  concrete. 

Troughs. — The  best  troughs  are  6  to  8  inches  high,  and  about 
14  inches  wide,  either  of  V-shape  or  flat-bottom.  Steel  troughs 
are  light  and  sanitary.  Concrete  is  a  good  trough  material 
but  is  heavy  to  handle.  Wood  troughs  are  easily  made,  but 
lack  permanence,  and  are  harder  to  keep  clean.  The  usual 
length  for  farrowing  pen  trough  is  3|  feet. 

Panels. — Panels  in  the  front  of  the  pen  and  the  pen  par- 
titions should  be  tight  near  the  floor,  with  a  total  height  of 
about  3  feet.  The  front  panel  over  the  trough  should  be  ar- 
ranged so  it  will  swing  inward  over  the  trough  for  convenience 
in  feeding,  and  must  be  braced  so  it  will  not  be  pushed  out 
The  cross  panels  which  separate  the  pens  should  be  hinged  or 
bolted,  in  order  that  two  or  more  pens  may  be  thrown  together 
if  desired. 


118 


HOG  HOUSES 


Wood  pens  have  been  used  almost  entirely  because  of  the 
low  cost.  When  strongly  made,  and  kept  clean,  the  only 
objection  to  the  wood  panels  is  that  much  sunlight  is  lost 
from  the  pens.  Steel  pen  panels  are  light,  clean,  and  permit 
the  passage  of  most  of  the  sunHght  through  the  bars.  For 
high-grade  or  breeding  stock  the  steel  equipment  is  economical. 

Fenders. — There  should  be  provision  made  in  every 
farrowing  pen  to  protect  the  httle  pigs  from  being  crushed 
by  the  sow.  A  fender  or  guard  rail  next  to  the  wall  will  prevent 
the  pigs  from  being  crushed  by  the  mother  against  the  panel 
or  wall.  The  fenders  may  be  made  of  wood,  iron  pipe,  or 
masonry.    A  2  by  4-inch  piece  makes  a  satisfactory  fender. 


•Tll^fi  WALL-  -PARTITlO/t 

-PIG    F-E-J^DErRS- 

Fig.  105. — Detail  of  pig  fenders. 


In  any  case  the  projection  should  be  placed  6  inches  from  the 
floor,  and  extending  6  inches  into  the  pen.  Masonry  fenders 
may  be  cast  or  placed  as  an  integral  part  of  the  wall. 

Drains. — ^The  use  of  traps  and  closed  drains  is  not  recom- 
mended in  the  hog  house,  because  of  the  trouble  due  to 
clogging.  The  best  drainage  is  secured  by  sloping  the  floor 
about  J  inch  to  the  foot  toward  the  gate,  and  draining  the  alley 
by  a  depression  in  the  floor. 

Nesting  Place. — The  concrete  or  tile  floor  is  objected  to 
by  many  hog  men  because  it  is  likely  to  be  cold  and  damp. 
This  cannot  be  remedied  by  bedding,  as  it  is  not  desirable  to 
have  a  deep  litter  on  the  floor  at  farrowing  time.     The  usual 


HOG  HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 


119 


method  of  providing  a  warm  nesting  place  is  to  make  a  wood 
overlay  of  inch  boards,  which  can  be  removed  when  the  pigs 
are  a  few  weeks  old.     The  overlay  is  about  4  by  5  feet  in  size. 


Inconvenient 


D  rivQ.way 


;^'  .«■  >.'o.  t>.:b:'>.'e:o."tf  .0-.P-. <:»'.<' 


Unsanitary 


Pen 


07^DE:3IRABL£ 


Convenient   I  -Scoop^top 


-  C30TTE"R3  •  HOe  •  HOOa£S  - 

Fig.  106. — Good  and  bad  types  of  gutters  for  hog  houses. 

Permanent  nesting  places  of  wood  blocks  or  cork  brick  are 
used  in  some  houses,  and  give  good  results. 


Hog-house  Construction 

The  construction  of  the  hog  house  and  outbuildings  presents 
a  simpler  problem  than  the  construction  of  the  barn.  The 
plans  and  construction  will  be  easily  understood  after  a  study 
is  made  of  barns.  The  foundation  is  hghter,  and  the  framing 
and  masonry  is  less  complicated.  Regardless  of  the  shape 
or  style  of  the  house,  the  construction  is  similar. 

Foundation. — The  footing  should  extend  to  firm  soil,  and 
below  the  frost  Hne  if  possible.  From  2  to  3 J  feet  below  grade 
is  usually  sufficient.  Concrete  or  tile  is  the  best  material 
to  use.  The  foundation  should  be  carried  above  grade  to  a 
height  of  from  6  inches  to  1  foot,  if  the  walls  are  frame.  The 
width  of  foundation  is  6  to  8  inches. 

Floors. — The  best  floors  are  made  of  4  inches  of  concrete, 
or  of  a  4-inch  layer  of  hollow  tile  covered  with  |  inch  of  con- 


120 


HOG  HOUSES 


Crete.  If  an  overlay  is  used  for  the  nesting  place  there  should 
be  no  objection  to  the  masonry  floor.  Wood  and  dirt  floors 
should  not  be  used. 

Walls. — The  walls  of  the  community  house  may  be  of 
concrete,  hollow  tile,  or  frame.    If  of  frame,  the  studding  are 


«V/>//7«/«/> 


3WA- 

Fig.  107. — Cross-section  of  Iowa  sunlit  hog  house. 


•P^O.nO  ATIOAI  •«.  FLOOR -BCTAIL' 

Fig.  108. — Details  of  walls  and 
floor. 


Prepared    Koofin9, 
Shiplop- 

O.l.Botta  brB»«  pit 
fbny   hot  bed  so»h 

^"x&-  Roftcr  3-0"OiO. 
boah  ae*jo»tcr 
•OKV-LtGHT-Wiy^DOWS- 

Fig.  109. — Details  of  sunlit  or 
skylight  window. 


2  by  4-inch  material  with  1-inch  siding.  The  tile  are  laid 
to  form  either  a  5  or  an  8-inch  wall,  the  latter  being  warmer 
and  stronger.  The  door  and  window  frames  may  be  made  of 
brick,  or  closed  tile,  if  carefully  laid  to  give  a  straight,  smooth 
opening.     Concrete  or  concrete  blocks  are  likely  to  be  somewhat 


TYPES  OF  COMMUNITY  HOUSES  121 

cold  and  damp  unless  made  with  an  air  space.    The  side  walls 
are  from  4  to  5  feet  high  in  ordinary  construction. 

Roof  Framing. — The  roof  is  made  of  2  by  4  or  2  by  6-inch 
rafters,  with  sheathing  and  shingles  or  prepared  roll  roofing, 
the  amount  of  bracing  depending  on  the  particular  style  of 
house  selected.  Enough  framing  should  be  used  to  prevent 
sagging  or  swaying.  If  masonry  walls  are  used,  the  plate  should 
be  bolted  to  the  walls  at  intervals  of  6  or  8  feet.  In  case 
windows  are  placed  in  the  roof,  the  framing  must  be  made  to 
receive  the  sash. 

Types  of  Community  Houses 

The  general  division  of  types  depends  upon  how  the  house 
is  placed  for  sunlight.  The  two  groups  are  the  '*  North  and 
South  "  houses,  which  set  with  the  long  axis  to  the  north  and 
south,  and  the  '*  East  and  West  "  type,  which  fronts  toward 
the  south.  A  complete  discussion  of  sunlight  is  given  in  the 
next  chapter.  The  type  of  house  is  usually  designated  by  the 
roof  shape.  Those  in  common  use  are:  Shed  roof;  com- 
bination-roof; monitor;  gambrel;  half -monitor;  and  gable- 
roof  houses. 

Shed  Roof. — This  type  is  usually  a  one-row,  low-cost 
house,  12  to  14  feet  wide.  The  roof  consists  of  a  single  pitch, 
and  the  windows  are  in  the  south,  or  front  wall.  The  rear 
wall  is  about  5  feet  high,  and  the  front  wall  is  6  to  9  feet  in 
height. 

Combination  Roof. — The  combination  roof  has  two  slopes 
of  unequal  length.  It  is  used  for  the  one-row  or  small  two- 
row  house.  Under  most  circumstances  the  combination 
roof  has  no  advantage  over  the  gable  roof,  except  under  certain 
conditions  for  lighting. 

Monitor  Roof. — This  house  is  set  north  and  south,  and 
has  no  windows  in  the  roof.  The  monitor  or  center  portion 
is  made  higher,  and  a  row  of  windows  placed  on  each  side  of  the 
monitor,  for  the  purpose  of  getting  direct  sunlight.  The  house 
.  is  likely  to  be  cold  because  of  the  height  of  the  ceihng.  There 
is  no  advantage  in  this  type  over  those  discussed  later. 


122 


HOG  HOUSES 


Gambrel  Roof. — The  gambrel  roof,  with  two  slopes  on 
each  side,  affords  very  good  Hghting  arrangements,  has  low 
head  room,  and  provides  a  good  appearing  roof.  There  are 
four  rows  of  windows  in  the  roof,  providing  light  in  the  pens 
throughout  the  day.  From  the  standpoint  of  appearance  the 
house  fits  well  into  the  farmstead  group,  with  the  gambrel- 


QHSD 


C0/1Biy^AT10/t 


C0n»UlAT10/t 


3HBD 


OAMORtI.SOrfl.IT    GAMBieCL  LO^T       GAMBREL  AVOW  GAMBREL  SPECIAL 

•covn/^o/1  type-3  ot-  coai/iov^ity  hog  hqose3- 
Fig.  110. 


roof  barns.     This  type  is  a  recent  development,  and  its  use  is 
increasing. 

Half -monitor  Roof. — This  type  is  very  popular  as  a  south- 
front  house,  and  is  the  most  w^idely  used  house  in  the  Middle 
West.  The  side  walls  are  4  to  5  feet  high,  and  the  total  height 
of  the  house  is  12  to  14  feet.    The  exact  proportions  depend 


TYPES  OF  COMMUNITY  HOUSES  123 

Upon  the  location  of  windows  for  sunlight.  There  are  two 
rows  of  windows,  one  row  in  the  upper  and  one  row  in  the 
lower  south  wall. 

Gable-roof  House. — The  two-slope  or  gable-roof  house  is 
simple  in  construction,  and  is  adaptable  to  a  variety  of  con- 
ditions. This  type,  together  with  the  gambrel  and  half 
monitor  represent  the  most  popular  and  best  types  of  com- 
munity houses.  In  the  two-row  house  the  height  is  12  or  13 
feet  to  the  ridge.  The  roof  is  usually  made  j  pitch.  The 
side  walls  are  4  or  5  feet  high.  Ventilation  and  lighting  can 
be  easily  controlled. 

There  are  three  styles  of  the  gable-roof  house  that 
have  proven  so  popular  that  they  should  be  considered 
briefly  They  are  the  "  Iowa  Sunlit,"  the  "  Nebraska,"  and  the 
''  Dakota,"  or  modified  Iowa  type.  The  Iowa  sunlit  house  is 
the  most  popular  gable-roof  house,  and  is  set  with  the  long 
axis  north  and  south,  a  continuous  row  of  windows  being 
placed  in  each  slope,  so  there  will  be  direct  simlight  in  the 
pens  throughout  every  clear  day.  This  house  was  developed 
by  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station. 

The  Nebraska  house  is  set  north  and  south,  but  the  walls 
are  made  6  to  7  feet  high,  with  all  windows  in  the  side  walls. 
The  roof  is  made  at  a  half  pitch,  and  feed  and  bedding  storage 
is  provided  in  a  loft. 

The  Dakota  type  has  the  long  axis  to  the  east  and  west, 
and  has  two  rows  of  windows  in  the  south  slope.  The  doors 
may  be  omitted  from  the  north  wall,  and  the  wall  banked 
for  warmth. 


CHAPTER  XIII 


HOG  HOUSE   SANITATION 

Of  the  various  points  mentioned  as  essential  for  the 
modern  hog  house,  the  sanitary  requirements  are  the  most 
important.  It  is  possible  to  raise  good  hogs  without  high- 
priced  or  nice  appearing  equipment,  but  it  is  not  possible  to 
do  so  without  careful  attention  to  the  requirements  of  sunlight, 
ventilation,  and  comfort. 

Most  of  the  essentials  of  sanitation  and  comfort  depend 


Fig.  111. 

wholly  or  In  part  upon  the  correct  introduction  of  direct  sun- 
light into  the  house.  Hogs  kept  in  houses  not  provided  with 
sufficient  and  correctly  located  windows  are  subject  to  colds, 
pneumonia,  and  disease. 

The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and  the 
Iowa  Experiment  Station  have  worked  out  the  problem  of 
sunhght  so  completely  that  the  builder  can  properly  locate 
the  windows  in  the  hog  house. 

Individual  Hog  House. — It  is  more  difficult  to  secure 
satisfactory  sunlight  in  the  small  hog  house  than  in  the  com- 
munity type.     The  large  doors  allow  the  entrance  of  sunlight 

124 


NORTH  AND  SOUTH  HOUSES 


125 


if  they  are  turned  toward  the  south.  For  severe  weather, 
it  may  be  possible  to  place  window  sash  in  the  door  frames 
to  admit  sunlight.  The  gable-roof  house,  with  roof  doors, 
is  the  best  from  the  standpoint  of  lighting.  Sunlight  may  be 
secured  for  a  period  of  about  five  hours  per  day  in  this  type 
if  the  doors  are  in  the  south  side  of  the  house. 

Community    Hog    House. — The    community    houses    are 
divided  into  two  general  classes,  so  far  as  lighting  is  concerned. 


% 


Mm 


*>0»lTIOAf  •  Ol*-    OOV^LTGHX    IM  ■  IOWA-  aoj^  HT  •  HOO  -MOOaEr  •  Al  ARCH  •».  1915- 
-   AV»^a«S,-tOWA-  -*.2  ••«.•!- AT.- 9S«-W.-l.a«0.- 


Fig.  112. 


One  group  includes  all  types  with  the  long  axis  to  the  north 
and  south,  and  receiving  the  direct  sunlight  through  the 
windows  in  the  side  walls  and  roof.  The  second  group  includes 
those  houses  which  face  the  south,  and  have  all  the  windows 
in  the  south  roof  or  wall. 

North  and  South  Houses. — The  houses  included  in  this 
group  are  the  gable-roof  house,  with  windows  in  the  roof  or 
wall,  the  gambrel-roof  house,  with  windows  in  all  slopes  of  the 
roof,  and  the  full  monitor  house,  with  windows  in  the  upper 
and  lower  walls. 


126  HOG  HOUSE  SANITATION 

The  Iowa  sunlit  type  of  gable-roof  house  has  a  continuous 
row  of  windows  on  each  side  of  the  roof.  Every  part  of  the 
floor  receives  direct  light  at  some  time  during  each  clear  day. 
The  west  pens  get  the  benefit  of  the  morning  sun,  and  the  east 
pens  are  directly  Hghted  in  the  afternoon. 

The  windows  in  the  gambrel-roof  house  are  not  continuous, 
but  are  provided  in  each  slope  of  the  roof,  and  the  pens  are  very 
well  lighted  throughout  the  day.  The  full  monitor  house 
does  not  afford  light  to  as  good  advantage  as  the  other  types. 
The  two-story  houses  have  all  the  windows  in  the  side  wall, 
but  the  Hght  strikes  some  windows  during  most  of  the  day. 

In  each  case  the  sunlight  reaches  the  pens  early  in  the 
day,  and  continues  to  strike  some  part  of  the  floor  of  the  farrow- 
ing pens  throughout  the  day.  There  is  no  variation  of  lighting 
during  the  season,  except  as  the  days  become  longer,  in  the 
spring,  the  length  of  time  during  which  the  house  is  lighted 
is  increased. 

East  and  West  Houses. — The  houses  set  to  face  the  south 
include  the  shed,  combination,  gable,  and  half -monitor  roof 
houses.  In  each  case  the  windows  are  placed  in  the  south 
side  of  the  house,  and  receive  direct  sunhght  through  about 
five  hours  per  day. 

The  shed  roof  is  usually  narrow,  and  the  windows  are  all 
placed  in  the  side  wall.  The  aUey  may  be  at  the  front  or 
rear  of  the  house,  depending  on  the  best  arrangement  for  sun- 
light, as  discussed  in  the  following  pages.  For  certain  condi- 
tions, it  will  be  found  that  the  combination-roof  house  will 
afford  more  direct  light  in  the  pens  than  the  shed  room.  There 
is  one  row  of  windows  in  this  type  of  house,  in  the  south  slope 
of  the  roof. 

It  is  often  desired  to  use  the  Iowa  type  of  gable-roof  house, 
but  with  the  long  axis  east  and  west.  In  this  case  two  rows 
of  windows  will  be  placed  in  the  south  roof  to  Hght  the  two 
rows  of  pens. 

The  half-monitor  house  should  have  a  row  of  windows  in 
each  section  of  the  south  wall.  The  total  height  of  the  house 
will  depend  on  the  window  location  for  best  lighting. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  WINDOW  LOCATION 


127 


Principles  of  Window  Location. — The  location  of  the  win- 
dows in  the  south-front  hog  houses  depends  on  the  two  factors 
of  latitude  and  time.     It  is  essential  that  the  maximum  of 


Prt-parcd    Roofing 


Fig.  113. 


1/4.    Pi+ch 


•  e.«o»3-SBcn*io.rf  •  E-A»T-e.-wt»T- hoc. -moose- •  po-b-- 

-.4-^-».;^O-RTH-LATlT0I>2:  MARCH    15- 

Fig.  114. — Cross-section  showing  sunlight  in  house,  March  1st, 
44°  N.  latitude. 

light  enter  the  house  at  farrowing  time,  especially  if  the  far- 
rowing date  is  in  the  early  spring  or  late  fall. 

It  is  commonly  understood  that  in  the  Northern  Hemi- 


128 


HOG  HOUSE  SANITATION 


sphere  the  sun  appears  lowest  in  the  south  about  December 
22,  and  more  nearly  overhead  about  June  22.  If  the  shadows 
at  noontime  are  noted  at  these  different  seasons,  it  will 
be  seen  that  a  long  shadow  is  cast  in  the  winter  and  a  short 
shadow  in  the  summer.  This  indicates  that  the  angle  between 
the  sun's  rays  and  the  earth  in  the  latitude  of  the  United 
States  is  amaller  in  winter  and  larger  in  summer.  This  angle 
varies  not  only  with  the  season,  but  with  the  latitude.  The 
sun  appears  more  nearly  overhead  in  Florida  than  in  Minne- 
sota on  April  1st.  For  each  degree  of  latitude,  and  each  week 
or  month  there  is  a  distinct  difference  in  the  angle  of  the 
sun's  rays,  which  have  been  worked  out  in  the  form  of  tables. 
The  following  table  gives  the  angle  of  sunlight  at  42^  degrees 
north  latitude,  from  January  to  April: 


Month 


Angle 


Degrees 


Minutes 


January  1. 
February  1 
March  1 . . . 
April  1 .  . .  . 


30 

30 

50 

0 


The   map   shows   the   latitude   covering   the   area   of   the 
United  States.     The  figures  range  from  26°  to  almost   50°. 

The  spring  farrowing 
season  will  ordinarily 
range  from  February  1 
to  April  15.  With  these 
two  factors  in  mind  it 
is  possible  to  locate  the 
windows  so  the  sunlight 
will  be  most  effective 
Fig.  115.— Sunlight  in  hog  house,  March    at   the   time  it   is  most 


•  PoaiTlO/t  WIAIOOwa-MAR-l    SS'^.LAT- 


1st,  36°  N.  latitude. 


needed.     An  analysis  of 
houses  built  without  regard  to  location  of  windows  shows  the 


PRINCIPLES  OF  WINDOW  LOCATION 


129 


result  of  poor  planning,  as  the  light  does  not  strike  the  pens 
at  farrowing  time. 

The  sunlight  table  herewith  is  taken  from  the  records 
of  the  U.  S.  Naval  Observatory,  as  given  in  Farmers'  Bulletin 
438.  In  this  table,  the  authors  have  reduced  all  figures  to  a 
basis  of  height  of  window  necessary  to  throw  direct  Ught  a 
distance  of  8  feet  back  of  the  window  at  noon.  For  example: 
Suppose  the  figure  were  desired  for  42°  north,  on  March  1, 
noon.  By  referring  to  the  column  headed  March  1,  and  in 
the  space  opposite  42°,  the  figure  6  feet  10  inches  is  given. 
This  is  the  height  necessary  for  the  top  of  the  window  to 
throw  light  a  distance  of  8  feet  into  the  building.  For  other 
distances  back  from  the  wall,  at  42°,  and  March  1,  it  is  only 
necessary  to  construct  a  reference  triangle,  drawn  to  scale,  with 
8-foot  base,  and  6  feet  10  inches  vertical  leg.    The  hypotenuse 

Sunlight  Table 


Month 

January 

February 

March 

April 

May 

Day 

1 

15 

1 

14 

1 

15 

1 

15 

1 

34° 

5' 

2" 

5' 

8" 

6' 

6" 

7'  6" 

9' 

1" 

11'  3" 

14'  3" 

18'  1" 

22'  11" 

35° 

5' 

0" 

5' 

6" 

6' 

3" 

r   3" 

8' 

9" 

10'  10" 

13'  7" 

17'  4" 

21'  10" 

36° 

10" 

5' 

4" 

6' 

0" 

6'  11" 

8' 

5" 

IC  4" 

13'  1" 

16'  7" 

20'  9" 

37° 

8" 

5' 

2"  5' 

10" 

6'  8" 

8' 

1" 

10'  0" 

12'  7" 

15'  10" 

19'  10" 

38° 

5" 

4' 

11" 

5' 

7" 

6'  5" 

7' 

10" 

9'  7" 

12'  1" 

15'  2" 

18'  11" 

39° 

3" 

4' 

9" 

5' 

4" 

6'  2" 

7' 

7" 

9'  4" 

11'  8" 

14'  6" 

18'  0" 

40° 

1" 

4' 

7" 

5' 

2" 

6'  0" 

7' 

4" 

9'  1" 

11'  2" 

13'  11" 

17'  1" 

41° 

3' 

11" 

4' 

4" 

11" 

5'  10" 

7' 

1" 

8'  9" 

10'  9" 

13'  4" 

16'  5" 

42° 

3' 

9" 

4' 

1" 

9" 

5'    7" 

6' 

10" 

8'  5" 

10'  5" 

12'  10" 

15'  9" 

43° 

3' 

7" 

3' 

11" 

7" 

5'  5" 

6' 

7" 

8'  1" 

10'  0" 

12'  4" 

14'  7" 

44° 

3' 

5" 

3' 

9" 

5" 

5'  3" 

6' 

4" 

7'  10" 

9'  8" 

11'  10" 

14'  5" 

45° 

3' 

3" 

3' 

7" 

2" 

5'  0" 

6' 

1" 

7'  7" 

9'  4" 

11'  5" 

13'  10" 

46° 

3' 

1" 

3' 

5" 

0" 

4'  9" 

5' 

10" 

7'  3" 

9'  0" 

11'  1" 

13'  4" 

47° 

2' 

11" 

3' 

2" 

3' 

9" 

4'  7" 

5' 

6" 

6'  11" 

8'  8" 

10'  7" 

12'  9" 

48° 

2' 

9" 

3' 

0" 

3' 

6" 

4'  5" 

5' 

3" 

6'  7" 

8'  4" 

10'  2" 

12'  3" 

Day 

11 

26 

11 

28 

14 

29 

14 

30 

15 

Dec. 


Nov. 


October 


Sept. 


August 


The  figures  in  the  body  of  the  table  show  height  of  top  of  window  for  sunlight  to 
fall  8  feet  0  inches  inside  of  wall  in  which  window  is  placed,  at  noon.  The  unit, 
8  teet  0  inches,  for  shadow  length,  is  taken  for  convenience,  because  it  is  the  length 
of  the  standard  farrowing  pen. 


130 


HOG  HOUSE  SANITATION 


will  be  parallel  to  the  sun's  ray.  All  rays  are  then  parallel  to 
the  first,  and  for  any  distance  back  from  the  wall,  a  similar 
triangle  may  be  drawn  to  locate  the  top  of  the  window  re- 
quired. In  a  like  manner,  the  reference  triangle  for  each 
degree  latitude,  and  each  date,  may  be  constructed. 

Locating  Windows  on  Plan. — The  windows  should  be  placed 
to  throw  direct  rays  of  sunlight  to  the  rear  of  the  farrowing 
pen  at  the  beginning  of  the  farrowing  season,  in  order  that 

Cord  boards 


Direction  of 
Sonlight' 


•LAYI/1G    OUT    SECTlO-n  OF- 
•HOG    fiOOSE    -POR    WINDOW  - 
'POSlTlOi^S- 


Seoore.    height  from 
Latitude    Table. 


ORDER  OP-  PROCKDOR.E- 
l  •  Base    Length  •  Width  of 
House    to  s&ole. 
2-  'Po.n    fronin. 
3  •  Side    walls. 
^    Son    rays    on   frianglc. 

5  •   Center  line. 

Q>'   Point   on   center  line. 

7-    Rafter 

&'    Sire    window  -  lower-  rpye. 


Fig.  116. — Illustrating  method  of  locating  windows  in  hog  house. 


there  will  be  some  hght  in  the  pens  during  the  month  following. 
The  following  operations  are  necessary  to  locate  the  windows 
on  the  plan: 

1.  Place  sheet  of  paper  on  drawing  board. 

2.  Determine  farrowing  date  and  latitude. 

3.  Lay  out  a  partial  cross-section  of  the  house,  showing 
width  of  alleys  and  pens,  side  walls  and  floor. 

4.  Refer  to  the  sunUght  table,  and  determine  the  height 
of  window  to  throw  light  back  8  feet. 

5.  Construct    reference    triangle,    with    8-foot    base,    and 


LOCATING  WINDOWS  ON  PLAN 


131 


erect  a  perpendicular  line  at  the  end  of  the  base  line  equal 
to  window  height.  Complete  the  triangle  by  drawing  the 
hypotenuse. 

6.  Draw  a  line  parallel  to  the  hypotenuse  of  the  reference 
triangle,  from  the  floor  line,  at  the  rear  of  the  north,  or  back 
pen.  Extend  this  line  across  the  paper  so  it  will  cut  the  wall 
or  roof.  Now  complete  the  sectional  view  of  the  house 
desired,  putting  in  wall  height  and  roof  slope.    The  point 


AAtERICA 


Fig.  117. — Latitude  map  for  the  United  States. 


where  the  line  drawn  cuts  the  wall  or  roof  is  the  correct  loca- 
tion of  the  top  of  the  window. 

7.  Repeat  6,  drawing  the  line  from  the  rear  of  the  front 
pens  to  locate  the  second  row  of  windows.  It  sometimes 
happens  that  the  wall  plate  or  structural  members  interfere 
with  the  correct  location  of  window,  as  determined.  It  may 
be  necessary  to  revise  the  plan  of  the  building  to  avoid  this. 

Size  and  Kind  of  Windows. — The  windows  should  be  fitted 
with  plain,  double-strength  glass,  and  should  be  comparatively 


132  HOG  HOUSE  SANITATION 

long  and  narrow.  The  most  common  size  of  metal  window  in 
use  is  one  giving  an  effective  glass  area  of  20  by  28  inches. 
Hothouse  sash  3  by  4  feet  for  roof  windows  are  satisfactory. 
The  larger  the  window,  the  less  proportion  of  hght  is  cut  off 
by  the  sash  and  the  window  frames. 

In  sections  where  hail  is  common  the  roof  windows  should 
be  protected  by  a  heavy  wire  mesh.  All  windows  should  be 
arranged  to  open  in  mild  weather,  for  ventilation.  Excess 
light  through  skyUght  windows  in  hot  weather  may  be  pre- 
vented by  shades,  or  by  straw  placed  on  boards  over  the  cross 
ties. 

Ventilation 

The  removal  of  foul  air  and  moisture  is  essential  if  the  hog 
house  is  to  be  kept  healthful  and  sanitary.  The  hog  is  not 
well  protected  by  natural  covering,  and  the  house  must  be 
kept  warm.  Dampness  in  the  house  causes  trouble  from 
pneumonia  and  colds. 

The  height  of  the  house  should  be  kept  low,  to  reduce  the 
amount  of  cubic  space  that  must  be  warmed.  Tight  walls 
and  close-fitting  doors  and  windows  will  aid  in  keeping  the 
house  warm.  The  roof  windows  tend  to  cool  the  building,  but 
the  warmth  of  the  direct  sunlight  more  than  offsets  this 
tendency. 

Both  the  King  and  Rutherford  systems,  discussed  in 
Chapter  XI,  are  used  in  hog  houses.  They  have  been  modi- 
fied to  some  extent  to  meet  the  conditions  in  the  hog  house. 

The  Rutherford  system  is  easier  to  install  in  the  house, 
and  appears  to  give  good  results.  The  short  length  of  flue, 
and  the  difficulty  of  constructing  intakes  in  the  low  wall 
lessens  the  value  of  the  King  system.  Since  the  usual  construc- 
tion omits  ceihng  under  the  rafters,  and  because  of  the  roof 
windows,  the  air  is  not  greatly  warmer  at  the  ceiling  than  at 
the  floor  fine.  The  motive  powers  of  wind  pressure  and  wind 
suction  do  not  act  with  full  effect,  since  the  hog  house  is  low 
and  usually  protected.  The  temperature  difference  is  not  so 
marked  as  in  the  farm  barn. 


VENTILATION 


133 


The  Rutherford  system  provides  a  ventilator  outlet  at  the 
roof  and  a  ventilator  at  the  ridge.  The  intakes  may  be  at 
the  wall  plate,  or  a  distance  of  about  4  feet  from  the  ground. 
This  height  is  sufficient  to  prevent  back  draft,  and  the  incoming 
air  does  not  strike  the  stock  directly. 

The  King  system  takes  the  foul  air  from  the  floor  line, 
and  the  fresh  air  entrance  is  made  somewhat  above  the  wall 
plate.  The  flues  should,  in  all  cases,  be  tight,  and  fitted  with 
adjusters.     Direct  drafts  on  the  stock  are  dangerous. 

Either  of  the  two  common  systems  may  be  used,  and  either 


L-Ow  J^oniior  o 


Aerafot-». 


OOl^r^OM    VEA1Tll.ATl/1GSYSXE--?^FOPiHOO-    HOOSES" 

FiG.  118. — Common  ventilating  system  for  a  hog  house. 


is  preferable  to  no  system  at  all.  The  same  general  principles 
of  ventilation  apply  to  hog  houses  as  to  barns.  (Chapter 
XL) 

Design  of  System. — Each  full-grown  pig  will  breathe 
about  1100  cubic  feet  of  air  in  twenty-four  hours,  or  46  cubic 
feet  per  hour.  In  order  to  maintain  the  correct  standard  of 
purity  it  is  necessary  to  supply  23  cubic  feet  per  minute.  The 
number  of  head  of  stock  in  the  hog  house  will  vary,  and  the 
flues  must  have  attention,  and  be  regulated  according  to  the 
number  of  head  housed.  For  average  conditions  there  should 
be  a  12-inch  diameter  cupola  for  each  20  feet  of  length  of  the 


134 


HOG  HOUSE  SANITATION 


two-row  house.  The  intakes  should  have  an  equal  area.  In 
mild  weather  some  of  the  windows  should  be  opened.  In  cold 
weather  it  will  be  necessary  partially  to  close  the  flues.  The 
hog  house  should  never  be  allowed  to  become  hot,  damp,  and 
steamy.  Personal  attention  is  necessary  if  the  ventilating 
system  is  to  work  efficiently. 


•KI/IG-Vt/ITJl.ATl/IQ    SYSTRAN-    HOG   HOO»&  • 

Fig.  119. — The  King  ventilating  system  adapted  to  a  hog  house. 


Other  Items  of  Sanitation. — The  features  of  sunlight  and 
ventilation  are  the  biggest  items  in  securing  a  sanitary  hog 
house.  The  problems  of  drainage,  floors,  and  equipment  have 
been  discussed  elsewhere  in  the  text.  It  is  also  important 
that  feeding  equipment,  yards,  and  feeding  floors  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  at  frequent  intervals,  and  every  possible  precaution 
taken  to  prevent  disease  and  unhealthful  conditions, 


CHAPTER  XIV 
POULTRY  HOUSES 

The  farm  flock  must  be  well  housed  and  cared  for,  and 
not  allowed  to  shift  for  itself,  if  results  are  to  be  secured  in  egg 
and  poultry  production.  The  modern  poultry  house  should 
have  facilities  for  feeding,  exercise  or  scratching,  nesting  and 
roosting. 

Location. — The  poultry  house  should  be  located  on  well- 


FiG.  120. — ^The  Iowa  half  monitor  type  of  poultry  house. 

drained,  porous  soil.  For  best  lighting  the  house  should  be 
set  with  the  long  axis  east  and  west.  Shelter  against  winter 
winds  and  storms  by  windbreaks  or  other  buildings  is  desirable, 
while  in  summer  there  should  be  as  much  air  movement  around 
the  house  as  possible.  The  poultry  house  may  be  located  closer 
to  the  dwelling  than  the  other  buildings,  since  the  women  of 
the  household  usually  care  for  the  flock.  The  poultry  should 
be  kept  away  from  the  feed  lots,  barns,  and  cribs. 

Size. — Three  to  4  square  feet  of  floor  space,  depending  on 
the  breed,  should  be  allowed  for  each  bird,  when  groups  of 
from  15  to  50  are  grouped  in  one  flock.     Modern  poultry  houses 

135 


136 


POULTRY  HOUSES 


are  built  in  units  of  length  of  8,  12,  16,  and  20  feet.  The  use 
of  the  open-front  house  in  recent  years  has  tended  to  increase 
the  width  of  the  house.  The  width  ranges  from  14  to  24 
feet,  depending  upon  whether  the  front  of  the  house  is  par- 
tially closed,  or  open.  Each  bird  should  be  allowed  from  12  to 
20  cubic  feet  of  space.  With  more  than  this  space  the  houses 
are  likely  to  become  cold. 

Construction. — The  average  poultry  house  is  of  a  simple, 
light  construction,  not  essentially  different  from  the  other 
small  structures.  The  principal  points  in  the  plan  and  con- 
struction discussed  here  are  those  generally  followed,  and 
apply  to  practically  all  of  the  types  in  common  use. 

Prcpancd   Coofing 

Shiplap 


FiG.  121. — Cross-section  of  Iowa  half  monitor  poultry  house. 

Foundation. — A  masonry  wall,  6  inches  wide,  and  extend- 
ing 12  to  18  inches  below  the  ground  Une,  is  sufficient  for  the 
poultry  house  foundation.  The  footing  should  be  widened 
somewhat,  and  steel  reinforcing  near  the  bottom  of  the  founda- 
tion wall  will  prevent  cracking  and  upheaval  due  to  frost 
action.  New  reinforcing  rods,  or  old  steel  bars  or  rods  will 
serve  to  strengthen  the  foundation.  The  wall  should  be  carried 
6  inches  or  more  above  the  grade  line.  Masonry  is  recom- 
mended in  preference  to  wood  sills,  for  all  but  the  movable 
colony  house. 

Floors. — Wood  or  dirt  floors  should  not  be  used  in  the 
poultry  house,   on  account  of  unsanitary  features,   rodents, 


WALLS 


137 


and  insect  pests.  Either  the  concrete  or  hollow  tile  floor 
may  be  used,  though  the  concrete  floor  has  the  disadvantage 
of  being  cold  and  damp.  The  liberal  use  of  clean  Utter  will 
partly  overcome  this  objection.  The  floor  should  be  made 
3  to  4  inches  thick.  The  tile  floor  is  warmer  and  dryer  than 
the  concrete,  and  is  made  by  making  a  gravel  fill  to  a  depth 
of  4  inches  or  more,  over  which  4  by  8  by  12  tile  are  laid  in  a 
sand  cushion.  One  inch  of  concrete  is  used  to  cover  the  tile, 
and  give  a  smooth  floor.  The  tile  may  be  defective  without 
damage  to  this  floor,  and  *'  seconds  "  will  reduce  the  cost. 

Walls. — Frame  walls  are  the  most  common  for  the 
poultry  house,  although  the  use  of  the  hollow  tile  wall  is 
increasing.     In  the  frame  construction,  a  2  by  4  or  2  by  6  sill  is 


Fig.  122. — Shed  type  of  poultry  house. 


bolted  to  the  foundation.  One  half  by  12-inch  bolts  are  used, 
set  6  feet  apart,  and  put  in  place  when  the  foundation  is  poured. 
Two  by  4-inch  studding,  set  2  feet  apart  on  centers,  a  single 
2  by  4  plate,  and  matched  siding  completes  the  wall  construc- 
tion. The  wall  height  will  depend  on  the  type  of  house,  and 
should  be  made  just  sufficient  for  headroom.  From  5  to  7 
feet  is  an  average  height. 

The  hollow  tile  affords  a  good  wall,  and  one  that  is  reason- 
ably warm  and  tight.  The  blocks  may  be  laid  to  form  a  5 
or  an  8-inch  wall,  the  latter  being  preferable.  The  blocks 
should  be  laid  in  a  lime-tempered  cement  mortar,  and  the 
joints  smoothed,  or  pointed.  For  corners  and  around  open- 
ings brick  may  be  used  to  fill  out,  or  half  tile  may  be 
secured. 


138 


POULTRY  HOUSES 


Roof. — The  roof  rafters  are  usually  2  by  4-inch  material, 
spaced  on  2-foot  centers.  On  longer  spans  than  14  feet, 
2  by  6  should  be  used.  The  common  wood  shingle  roof  may 
be  used.  Tight  sheathing  and  prepared  roofing  is  now  used 
to  a  large  extent  as  a  covering  for  the  poultry  house. 

Windows. — Windows  should  be  placed  in  the  south  wall  of 
the  poultry  house  to  furnish  abundant  sunlight.  One  square 
foot  of  glass  area  should  be  provided  for  each  12  or  14  square 
feet  of  floor  space.  The  location  of  the  windows  should  be 
such  that  the  January  sun  will  shine  on  the  floor,  rather  than 
on  the  roosts.     Sunlight  on  the  roosts  in  cold  weather  encour- 


>hi  p  lap 


"Roofing 


Gnadg.-  ^ 

•4--^rov«.l    "PHI  lO-Concra+tWoll-y^ 

Fig.  123. — Cross-section  shed  tjrpe  of  poultry  house. 

ages  the  birds  to  remain  on  the  roost.  The  discussion  of  sun- 
light in  Chapter  XIII  should  be  noted.  The  windows  are  of 
the  single-sash  type,  arranged  to  swing  inward.  The  shed- 
roof  type  has  the  windows  hinged  at  the  top,  and  in  the  half- 
monitor  house  they  are  hinged  at  the  bottom.  A  muslin  screen 
is  sometimes  used  in  place  of  the  glass  sash.  They  should  be 
hinged  at  the  top,  so  they  may  be  partially  opened  on  clear 
days  in  winter.  The  openings  in  the  south  wall  should  be 
screened  with  a  fine-mesh  screen  wire,  and  covered  with  a 
heavy-mesh  hardware  cloth,  to  keep  the  fowl  inside  the  house, 
and  prevent  the  entrance  of  small  nocturnal  animals. 


VENTILATION 


139 


Doors. — One  or  more  entrance  doors,  at  least  2  feet  by 
6  feet  in  size,  should  be  provided  in  the  ends  of  the  house. 
The  fowls  require  a  small  entrance  opening  about  12  by  15 
inches  in  size  for  each  unit.  These  entrances  should  be  pro- 
vided with  a  door  that  can  be  tightly  closed. 

Divisions. — The  divisions  which  separate  the  sections 
of  the  poultry  house  may  be  tight  partitions  or  they  may  be 
made  of  slats  or  poultry  netting.  Where  more  than  three 
units  are  contained  in  the  same  house,  it  is  advisable  to  make 
the  partitions  alternately  of  tight  boarding  and  wire  netting. 


BETAiu-  op-v^ftara 


Fig.  124.— Detail  of 
nests. 


Fig.  125. — Detail  of  dropping 
board  and  roosts. 


Ventilation. — The  removal  of  moisture  and  provision  for 
fresh  air  are  fully  as  important  in  the  poultry  house  as  in  the 
other  livestock  shelters.  A  complete  system  of  ventilation 
with  air  flues  and  intakes  is  likely  to  make  the  building  too 
cold.  In  the  open-front  house,  the  ventilation  is  provided 
through  mushn  screens.  Inlets  may  be  through  windows  in 
the  other  types  of  houses.  Outlets  for  foul  air  are  sometimes 
provided  by  making  small  doors  over  the  wall  plate,  and 
between  the  rafters,  which  may  be  regulated  according  to 
the  need.  Drafts  should  not  strike  the  fowls  while  they  are 
on  the  roosts. 


140 


POULTRY  HOUSES 


•POOLTRY  •  StLF'-F^EEDER.- 

Fig.  126.— Detail  of  a  self 
feeder. 


Poultry-house  Equipment. — The  necessary  equipment  for 

the    poultry-house   includes    nests,    roosts,    dropping    boards, 

and  feeders.     It  is  desirable  in  planning  the  house  to  arrange 

all  of  the  equipment  such  as  nests, 
roosts,  and  dropping  boards  near 
the  rear  of  the  house,  leaving  the 
front  part  for  exercise  and  feeding. 
Nests  are  placed  under  the 
dropping  board,  or  along  the  end 
of  the  house  opposite  the  entrance 
door.  The  usual  size  is  12  inches 
each  way.  The  front  of  the  nests 
should  be  closed  by  a  hinged  cover, 
with  an  entrance  door  for  the  birds 
at  the  rear.  It  is  best  to  have 
runways  up  to  the  nests  from  the 
floor. 
The  roosts  should  be  made  of  2  by  4-inch  material  with 

the  upper  edge  rounded,  set  in  2  by  4-inch  beams,  which  are 

bolted  to  the  studding  at  the  rear 

wall  is  such  a  way  that  they  can  be 

raised.     The  roosts  should  be  rigid, 

firm    and    all    on  the   same   level. 

About  14  inches  should  be  allowed 

between  roosts,  and  8  to  10  inches 

of  space  per  bird. 

Dropping    boards     are    placed 

directly  under  the  roosts,  made  of 

tight    lumber,   and   nailed    to    the 

supports  so  the  droppings  can  be 

raked  off  lengthwise  of  the  boards. 
The  feeder  should  be  used  to  feed 

dry  feeds  and  mixed  feed.     It  is  a 

popular  piece  of  equipment  in  poul- 
try keeping. 

Types  of  Poultry  Houses. — The  two  types  of  houses  in 

common  use  are  the  colony,  or  small  house,  and  the  community 


Fig.  127. — The  colony  type  of 
poultry  house. 


COLONY  HOUSES 


141 


or  permanent  house.  The  advantages  and  disadvantages 
of  the  community  and  the  small  colony  houses  are  similar  to 
the  two  general  types  of  hog  houses  discussed  elsewhere. 

Colony  Houses. — The  small  houses  are  usually  built  on 
sills,  which  serve  as  runners  so  the  house  can  be  moved  about. 
The  small  colony  house  is  almost  the  only  type  used  for  the 
town  or  city  flock.  The  breeder  with  different  breeds  of 
pure-bred  fowls  will  find  the  colony  house  suited  to  his  needs. 

Four  by  4-inch  wood  sills  are  commonly  used  in  the 
construction,  together  with  1-inch  flooring,  2  by  4-inch 
framing,  and  tight  boards  for  the  covering.    Prepared  roofing 


Fig.  128. — The  combination  type  of  poultry  house. 


may  be  placed  over  the  sides  and  roof,  for  a  warm,  tight 
house. 

The  shed-roof  house,  5  feet  high  at  the  rear  and  7  feet  high 
in  front,  with  door  and  window  in  the  south  side,  affords  a 
good  house  for  the  small  flock.  A  size  of  6  by  8  feet  will  care 
for  twelve  to  eighteen  birds.  The  house  may  be  built  of  cheap 
material  to  reduce  the  cost. 

The  gable-roof  house,  6  by  8  feet  in  size  with  side  walls 
5  feet  high,  and  door  and  window  in  the  end,  provides  another 
good  type  of  small  house.  The  equipment  is  placed  along  the 
sides,  leaving  the  center  of  the  house  for  feeding.  A  small 
gable  house  can  be  made  from  two  piano  boxes. 

Community  Houses. — The  community  house  is  the  more 
permanent  type,  two  or  more  units  being  placed  together 
under  one  roof.  The  type  may  be  shed,  gable,  combination, 
or  half-monitor  roof. 


142 


POULTRY  HOUSES 


Shed-roof  House. — The  usual  width  of  the  shed-roof 
house  is  14  feet.  The  roof  is  a  single  slope,  and  the  house 
faces  the  south.  The  north  wall  is  made  5  feet  high,  and  the 
front  is  about  8  feet  high.  The  walls  may  be  either  of  hollow 
tile  or  frame.  This  type  house  is  frequently  built  with  an 
open  front.     This  is  a  popular,  low-cost  house. 

Gable-roof  House. — This  is  a  two-slope  roof  house,  with 
low  walls,  and  rather  a  steep-pitch  roof.  The  windows  are 
placed  in  the  gable  ends. 

Combination  Roof. — This  type  of  house  has  a  short  rafter 


Fig.  129. — A  large  half  monitor  poultry  house. 


in  the  south  slope,  giving  more  headroom  than  the  shed  type. 
The  south  wall  will  accommodate  full-size  windows,  and  the 
doors  are  placed  in  the  ends. 

Half -monitor  Roof  House. — The  "  sawtooth "  house  is 
very  popular  in  the  Middle  West.  The  front  part  provides 
a  scratching  shed  8  or  more  feet  wide,  and  the  usual  width  10 
feet  is  available  for  the  equipment.  The  front  wall  is  covered 
with  screened  openings,  and  adjustable  windows  are  placed 
in  the  monitor. 


CHAPTER  XV 
GRAIN-STORAGE  BUILDINGS 

Grain  is  the  principal  crop  on  a  large  number  of  farms, 
and  in  some  sections  it  is  the  only  money  crop.  The  annual 
production  of  corn  is  about  2^  billion  bushels;  of  oats  1| 
bilUon  bushels;  and  of  wheat  2|  billion  bushels.  The  market 
value  of  the  grains  makes  it  essential  that  care  be  taken  to 
preserve  and  market  the  crop  in  the  best  condition.  Lack  of 
housing  facilities  has  resulted  in  losses  due  to  weather  condi- 
tions, rodents  and  fluctuating  prices.  A  good  grain  storage 
makes  it  possible  to  hold  the  crop  for  favorable  prices,  and 
affords  protection  from  the  elements.  It  should  provide  for 
handhng  the  crop  with  a  minimum  of  hand  labor. 

Tjrpes  of-  Grain  Storage. — The  three  types  of  storage 
buildings  for  grain  are  the  corn  crib,  granary,  and  combined 
crib  and  granary,  or  farm  elevator. 

If  corn  is  the  only  product  to  be  stored,  the  separate  crib 
for  ear  corn,  with  possibly  a  tight  bin  for  shelled  corn  is  all 
that  is  required. 

The  separate  granary  is  used  for  the  small  grains.  The 
building  is  tightly  constructed,  with  strong  walls  and  heavy 
floors.  All  granary  design  should  be  figured  for  wheat  storage, 
as  it  is  the  heaviest  grain. 

On  the  general  farm  there  is  usually  corn,  small  grain,  and 
some  shelled  corn  to  be  housed.  The  combined  grain-storage 
building  is  the  best  type  of  structure  under  these  circumstances, 
and  this  discussion  will  consider  the  combined  building. 

Location. — Since  the  grain-storage  building  houses  the 
grain  used  for  the  Hvestock,  the  building  should  be  convenient 
to  the  feeding  barn  and  hog  house.     There  should  be  no  fences 

143 


144 


GRAIN^STORAGE  BUILDINGS 


to  interfere  with  wagons,  nor  gates  to  pass  through  with  a 
basket.  The  building  should  be  located  so  that  a  wagon  may 
be  driven  through  it,  or  pass  alongside  of  the  crib.  It  may  be 
desirable  to  locate  so  that  feed  may  be  thrown  direct  onto  the 


Fig.  130. — A  double  corn  crib. 


feeding  floor.     Provision  should  be  made  for  operating  shellers 
or  elevators  near  the  grain  buildings. 

Width. — The  width  of  the  corn  crib  is  Hmited  by  the  con- 
dition of  the  corn  when  cribbed.  For  most  parts  of  the  Corn 
Belt,  the  corn  is  cribbed  before  it  is  fully  dry.     To  prevent 

spoiling  and  allow  thorough  dry- 
ing out  the  width  should  be  be- 
tween 8  and  9  feet.  Double  cribs 
have  a  driveway  10  to  14  feet 
wide.  Grain  birs  should  not  be 
more  than  10  feet  wide,  for  con- 
venience. The  double  crib  and 
granary  will  be  from  26  to  30  feet 
wide. 

Length. — The  length  of  the 
low  crib,  without  power  elevators,  may  depend  on  the  amount 
of   grain   to   be   stored.     With    elevators,  the    grain  storage 


Fig.  131. 


—A  temporary  frame 
corn  crib. 


HEIGHT 


145 


should  not  be  more  than  36  to  40  feet  long,  as  the  elevator 
will  not  carry  the  grain  to  the  ends  of  the  building  in  a 
greater  length.  For  longer  buildings  it  is  necessary  to  use 
two  elevators,  or  provide  a  portable  elevator  for  several 
settings.  A  length  of  36  feet  will  accommodate  the  grain  on 
most  farms. 

Height. — Ten  feet  is  about  the  maximum  height  of  bin 
or  crib  for  hand  shoveling.  With  elevating  machinery  the 
height  may  be  made  as  desired.  Extremely  high  buildings 
waste  corn  by  shattering  as  the  building  is  filled.  The  best 
height  is  from  16  to  20  feet  from  foundation  to  eaves.  Grain 
in  overhead  bins  should  not  be  deeper  than  about  12  feet. 

Capacity. — To  determine  the  size  of  building  needed,  it  is 


^.^fff 


•  CR0S3  ■  aecTian  «b 


Fig.  132. — Single  corn  crib,  section  and  elevation. 


necessary  to  study  yields,  acreage,  kind  of  grain,  and  type 
of  farming.  The  total  yield  should  be  calculated,  and  the 
grain  storage  designed  to  hold  the  crop.  One  bushel  of  ear 
corn,  husked,  will  occupy  2h  cubic  feet  of  space.  One  bushel 
of  shelled  corn  requires  li  cubic  feet.  The  small  grains  also 
take  Ij  cubic  feet  per  bushel.  The  width  of  the  building 
is  fixed,  within  narrow  limits.  By  selecting  a  convenient 
height  or  length,  the  other  dimension  can  easily  be  determined. 
Shape. — The  most  common  shape  for  the  combined  crib 
and  granary  is  the  square  or  rectangular.  This  construction 
permits  of  a  driveway,  overhead  bins,  and  convenience  in 
handling  the  grain.  Frame  construction  is  easiest  to  handle 
in  the  rectangular  building.     Hollow  tile  and  concrete,  while 


146 


GRAIN-STORAGE  BUILDINGS 


used  in  the  square  or  rectangular  buildings,  are  especially 
adapted  to  round  buildings,  and  for  this  reason  the  round  crib 
and  granary  have  been  advocated.  The  advantages  are  that 
the  round  building  can  be  reinforced  easily,  affords  a  maxi- 
mum of  storage  space,  and  is  less  expensive  than  the  regular 
type  of  construction.  Large  grain  interests  use  the  masonry 
storage  in  the  round  form  for  their  grain.  The  amount  of 
grain  on  the  average  farm,  however,  is  not  sufficient  to  war- 
rant the  construction  of  the  large  bins. 

Construction. — The    following    discussion    refers    to    the 


jiir  II  II  II  II  II  II 


C  R.  1  B 


Capaci     i    y         ZOOO    Boi 


' '"     I"      "I     "I      'I'     "T- 


j>    R    I     V    t   W    A    V 


levator     t>i 


II I  III  'III  III  'III  111  III  III    III  III  III  III  III  nmi-ir 


C  R  I 


city  Z  OOO     S  us. 


II  II II  II  II  II  II  II  II  II  II  II  II  II  II  II II  II  II  II  II II  II  II  II  a 


PLAn       or-     SOOBUX:     CRISS 

Fig.  133. — A  plan  of  a  double  corn  crib. 


combined  corn  crib  and  granary.  The  construction  of  the 
single  crib  or  the  small  grain  bin  is  not  of  sufficient  importance 
to  warrant  discussion.  The  small  buildings  are  famihar  in 
all  sections  of  the  country. 

Foundations. — The  weight  of  the  corn  crib  and  granary 
requires  a  firm  foundation  to  prevent  settling.  The  footing 
should  extend  below  the  frost  fine,  on  firm  soil.  The  founda- 
tion under  the  crib  wall  should  be  12  inches  thick,  and  widened 
to  18  inches  at  the  bottom,  while  that  under  the  inside  wall, 
which  must  carry  the  weight  of  the  grain  bins,  should  be 
made  14  inches  thick,  with  a  20  or  24-inch  footing.  The 
foundation  is  made  continuous  around  the  building,  and  the 


FLOORS 


147 


v~i 


2-2Vft'l6"o.ci 


r^iO 


-C 


walls  and  floor  brought  6  to  12  inches  above  the  ground.     A 

cinder  or  gravel  fill  under  the  floor  and  a  tile  drain  around  the 

foundation  is  sometimes 

necessary    to    avoid 

moisture. 

Floors. — Both  wood 

and  masonry  floors  are 

used  for  grain  storage. 

Wood  is  not  rat  proof, 

and  decays   quite  rap- 
idly   under   the    usual 

conditions.    Wood 

floors  require  heavy  sills 

and  supports    to    hold 

the  weight  of  the  grain. 
Masonry    materials 

are  satisfactory  for  the 

corn    or    grain,     when 

properly  made.     There 

should  be  no  trouble  due 

to  dampness.    Floors  in 

the  crib  should  be  sloped  to  an  outlet  with  a  pitch  of  J  inch 

per  foot,  for  drainage.     There  should  be  a  fill  of  6  to  12  inches 

of  porous  material  un- 
der the  masonry.  The 
floor  should  be  smooth, 
for  easy  shoveling. 

The  masonry  floor 
may  be  either  of  hollow 
tile  or  concrete.  The 
concrete  should  be  4  to 
5  inches  thick,  of  a 
dense,  jelly-like  mix- 
ture, and  troweled 
smooth.     The  tile  floor 

is  made  from  a  layer  of  tile  on  a  sand  cushion,  and  covered 

with  2  inches  of  cement  mortar.     The  driveway  floor  should 


•   CROS»»tCTIO/t,a>OOBI.I-CRI»3- 

Fig.  134. — A  cross-section  of  a  double  crib. 


Pitch^tw*«rt^Mf»t»^*  Crown 


Fig. 


-seCTtO/1  ^LQOttA,  ?Ottri*ATIO/1- 

135. — Details  of  foundation  and  floor 
for  a  corn  crib. 


148  GRAIN-STORAGE  BUILDINGS 

be  made  of  concrete  in  all  cases.  Bolts  for  the  sill  or  studding 
sockets  must  be  used  with  the  tile  or  concrete  floor. 

Sloping  Floors. — Some  designers  have  advocated  that 
crib  and  bin  floors  be  made  with  a  sloping  floor,  so  the  corn 
or  grain  will  roll  to  the  outlet,  and  save  shoveling.  The  angle 
recommended  is  about  25°,  as  this  is  the  angle  at  which  the 
small  grains  will  sUde.  This  is  not  recommended  here,  for 
the  following  reasons.  The  cost  of  building  a  sloping  floor 
is  greater  than  for  a  level  floor;  small  machines  such  as  hand 
shellers  could  not  be  placed  on  the  sloping  floor;  for  small 
grain,  all  but  a  small  portion  of  the  grain  will  flow  to  an 
opening  in  the  bottom  of  the  bin  when  the  floor  is  level;  corn 
often  becomes  wedged  so  that  there  is  no  movement,  and 
may  form  an  almost  vertical  wall;  there  is  some  loss  of  storage 
space  by  the  use  of  the  sloping  floor. 

Crib  Walls. — For  frame  construction,  the  studding  should 
be  2  by  6-inch  material,  from  the  sill  to  the  plate.  The 
studding  is  spaced  16  inches  to  2  feet  on  centers,  and  double 
studding  set  at  intervals  of  about  6  feet.  The  framing  must  be 
firmly  anchored  at  the  bottom  to  prevent  spreading.  The 
common  siding  is  crib  or  bevel  siding,  with  the  pieces  set  one- 
half  inch  apart;  it  is  usually  placed  horizontally,  although  some 
prefer  to  use  a  diagonal  siding.  The  inside  walls  of  the  crib 
are  made  in  the  same  manner,  except  that  it  is  necessary 
to  set  the  studding  12  inches  apart  if  overhead  bins  are  used. 
The  inside  studding  is  carried  to  a  plate  under  the  bin  joists, 
and  the  joists  are  placed  directly  over  the  ends  of  the  studs. 
The  bins  are  covered  with  shiplap  or  matched  lumber. 

Overhead  Bins. — The  joists  of  the  bins  over  the  drive 
should  be  designed  for  wheat,  as  it  is  the  heaviest  grain.  In 
most  cases  the  drive  should  not  be  more  than  13  feet  wide. 
The  heaviest  construction  usually  found  is  3  by  14-inch  joists 
spaced  1  foot  apart  on  centers.  This  will  support  a  depth 
of  about  9i  feet  of  wheat.  The  joists  are  usually  placed 
crosswise  of  the  building,  and  serve  to  tie  the  structure 
together.  An  opening  should  be  provided  in  the  floor  of  the 
bin,  through  which  most  of  the  contents  of  the  bin  may  be 


HOLLOW-TILE  CONSTRUCTION 


149 


drawn  out  without  labor.  The  same  objections  to  the  sloping 
floor  apply  to  the  bin  as  to  the  corn  crib.  The  bins  should  be 
made  approximately  square. 

Ties  and  Braces. — The  pressure  of  the  grain  in  the  crib 
and  bins  tends  to  spread  the  building.  To  prevent  strain  which 
might  throw  the  building  out  of  shape,  cross-ties  are  essential. 
If  the  side  walls  are  8  feet  or  more  high,  one  line  of  cross- 
ties  should  be  placed  at  about  the  center  height,  and  another 
row  at  the  plate.  The  lower  braces  should  be  1  by  12  inches, 
at  every  studding,  and  the  braces  at  the  plate  should  be  at 
least  2  by  6-inch  material,  and  spaced  2  feet  apart.  There 
should  also  be  ties  across  the  top  of  the  grain  bin. 

Roof  Construction. — The  best  type  of  roof  for  the  combined 
crib  and  granary  is  the  half-pitch  gable  roof.  This  roof 
affords  headroom  for  the  bins,  and  for  the  elevator.  To 
accommodate  the  elevator  head,  a  cupola  is  necessary  at  the 
ridge.  The  construction  of  this  type  of  roof  is  discussed 
elsewhere. 

Hollow-tile  Construction. — There  is  an  increasing  use  of 
hollow  tile  for  grain-storage  con- 
struction, and  the  material  is  satis- 
factory, and  has  several  advantages 
as  compared  with  frame  construc- 
tion. The  tile  is  more  fire-resist- 
ing and  more  permanent.  Tile  is 
readily  adapted  to  round  construc- 
tion, which  affords  a  maximum  of 
storage  space.  The  two  types  of 
tile  buildings  are  the  round  and 
rectangular. 

The  round  crib  and  granary 
can  be  easily  reinforced  against 
the  outward  pressure  of  the  grain. 
The  disadvantage  of  round  struc- 
tures is  that  they  are  not  so  easily 
adapted  to  the  storage  of  several  kinds  of  grain.  The 
economy  of  the   round   building  lies  in  the  possibility  of  in- 


FiG.  136. — A  round  corn  crib 
of  hoUow  clay  block. 


150  GRAIN-STORAGE  BUILDINGS 

creasing  the  height  to  provide  a  large  storage  with  one  roof 
and  foundation.  Two  walls  are  necessary  in  the  round  crib, 
the  outer  wall  and  an  inner  wall  around  a  ventilating  shaft. 
The  ventilator  is  from  6  to  8  feet  in  diameter,  the  cribs  are  8 
to  9  feet  across,  making  the  total  diameter  22  to  26  feet. 

Foundation  and  footings  are  made  of  concrete.  The 
walls  are  laid  up  with  special  crib  tile,  laid  in  cement  mortar. 
It  is  necessary  to  reinforce  the  wall  with  reinforcing  rods  in 
the  mortar  joints,  as  in  silo  construction.  Openings  such  as 
for  driveway  should  have  reinforced  concrete  frames,  and  the 
horizontal  reinforcing  is  tied  into  the  steel  in  the  door  frame. 
The  roof  construction  may  be  of  shingles  and  sheathing,  or  of 
roofing  tiles. 

The  rectangular  tile  crib  and  granary  provides  a  driveway 
and  overhead  bins.  Inside  elevators  and  grain-handling 
conveniences  may  be  more  easily  installed  than  in  the  round 
building.  The  usual  construction  is  to  build  the  crib  walls 
of  tile  to  the  plate,  and  use  frame  construction  for  the  bins 
and  roof  frame.  The  problem  is  similar  to  any  other  tile 
building,  except  for  the  wall  reinforcing.  Horizontal  steel 
is  laid  in  the  joints,  at  the  rate  of  about  2  or  3  No.  3  wires  to 
each  joint.  At  intervals  of  from  5  to  7  feet  there  should  be 
upright  pilasters  or  wall  columns  to  stiffen  the  wall.  These 
pili,.sters  should  have  at  least  four  half-inch  vertical  reinforcing 
rods.  The  authors  recommend  that  for  tile  grain  buildings, 
the  crib  walls  only  be  made  of  tile,  and  the  upper  part  of  the 
building  be  made  of  frame  construction. 

Recently  there  has  been  developed  a  type  of  tile  building 
in  which  the  gable  ends,  roof,  and  walls  are  all  of  tile.  Only 
the  overhead  bins  are  of  frame  construction.  This  is  an  excel- 
lent type  of  building,  but  it  involves  many  problems  and  as 
yet  has  not  passed  the  experimental  stage.  Waterproofing, 
reinforcing,  and  high  cost  are  the  factors  which  tend  to  hold 
back  the  all-tile  construction. 

The  crib  blocks  are  special  types,  made  with  air  spaces 
through  the  walls  for  ventilation.  One  type  of  block  is  cut 
at  an  angle,   to  prevent  the  entrance  of  moisture  through 


OTHER  CRIB  MATERIALS 


151 


the  wall,  in  case  of  heavy  rains.  Another  block  is  cut  square, 
with  small  openings  through  the  wall.  This  latter  type  pre- 
vents the  entrance  of  birds.  The  tile  crib  wall  is  made  8  inches 
thick. 

Other  Crib  Materials. — Grain  tanks  have  been  made  of 
both  tile  and  concrete,  and  are  successful.  Sheet  metal, 
wire  fencing,  and  poles  have  all  been  used  for  less  permanent 
types  of  storage.  Concrete  has  been  used  in  various  forms  for 
cribs,  but  as  yet  has  found  but  limited  use. 

Special  Features. — The  value  of  the  grain  crop  necessi- 
tates   protection    from    rodents,    fire,    and    moisture.     The 


Cone  reft 

P-loor 

Piscoorei^cs 

Rots 


-•R-fiiT  •  PROTECTlOi^- 


FiG.  137. — Details  of  rat  guards  for  corn  crib. 


heavy  labor  required  for  hand  shoveling  makes  it  desirable 
that  all  possible  conveniences  and  power  appliances  be  used. 
These  special  features  that  should  be  included  in  the  building 
are  rat  proofing,  shelling  trenches,  gravity  spouts,  and  elevating 
machinery.  Proper  construction  will  make  the  building 
fire  resisting  and  moisture  proof. 

Ratproofing. — It  is  estimated  that  rats  destroy  over  200 
milUon  dollars'  worth  of  food  products  every  year,  a  large  part 
of  which  loss  occurs  in  the  grain-storage  buildings.  If  the 
foundation  is  carried  down  2  feet  below  the  grade  fine,  it  is 
unlikely  that  the  rats  will  burrow  beneath  it.  A  tile  or  con- 
crete floor  will  keep  the  rats  from  getting  through.     The  other 


152 


GRAIN-STORAGE  BUILDINGS 


Sri¥«wa> 


possible  entrance  into  the  crib  is  through  the  side  walls.  To 
prevent  this,  a  fine-mesh  galvanized  wire  is  placed  against 
the  studding,  or  inside  the  tile  wall,  and  carried  from  the 
foundation  to  a  height  of  about  2  or  2 J  feet.  At  the  top  of 
the  mesh,  a  strip  of  galvanized  metal  about  6  inches  wide  is 
placed  around  the  wall,  projecting  outward  and  downward 
to  form  an  apron.  The  rodents  are  unable  to  climb  over  this 
metal  strip,  and  if  doors  are  kept  tight,  they  will  be  barred 
from  the  crib. 

Shelling  Trench. — To  avoid  the  labor  of  shoveling  the  corn 
to  the  sheller  conveyor  or  drag,  the  shelling  trench  is  used 
in  many  cribs.  The  trench  is  simply  a  depression  in  the  floor, 
about  18  inches  wide  and  18  inches  deep.  The  trench  is 
covered  with  short  blocks  of  wood  placed  crosswise,  before  the 

crib  is  filled.  At  shell- 
ing time  the  conveyor 
is  inserted  in  the  trench, 
and  the  covering  blocks 
removed  as  necessary. 
It  is  claimed  that  one 
.   .  srcTio/1  aHSLu/io  trii/icm.  ^^^^  ^^^    regulate  the 

Fig.  138.-DetaU  of  shelling  trench.  ^^^     ^^     ^^^^    ^^    ^^^ 

sheller,  and  save  the  labor  of  two  or  three  men  at  shelling  time. 
If  the  flow  of  corn  is  not  carefully  regulated,  there  is  danger  of 
choking  the  sheller  drag.  The  trench  may  be  used  with  either 
the  sloping  or  level  floor. 

Gravity  Spouts. — With  overhead  bins  it  is  possible  to  drive 
a  wagon  under  the  bin.  If  a  spout  is  placed  at  the  bottom 
of  the  bin,  practically  all  of  the  grain  can  be  drawn  into  the 
wagon  without  hand  labor.  The  spout  should  be  placed  in  the 
center  of  the  bin  if  possible.  A  framed  opening  in  the  bin 
floor  and  a  metal  spout  will  be  found  satisfactory. 

Elevating  Machinery. — The  best  type  of  modern  grain 
storage,  with  side  walls  up  to  20  feet  high,  must  have  means 
of  elevating  the  grain.  Elevators  which  will  unload  a  wagon 
load  of  corn  or  small  grain  without  hand  labor  in  five  or  six 
minutes  are  considered  a  necessity  in  many  sections. 


ELEVATING  MACHINERY 


153 


There  are  two  types  of  elevators  for  the  farm,  known  as 
the  portable  and  the  inside-cup  elevator. 

The   portable   elevator   is   best   where   there   are   several 


Fig.  139. — An  elevator  in  place  in  crib. 

different  cribs  or  bins  to  fill,  or  where  some  grain  is  housed 
in  the  barn.  This  type  can  be  moved  about,  and  used  in 
different  locations,  hence  is  favored  by  the  tenant  farmer. 
The  disadvantages  of  the  portable  type  are  that  the  machine  is 


•CROSS    StCTIOAl-  -LOy^GlTOPI/nAl.-   SfcCTlOT^- 

-DE-TAIU    DO/-W    LOG    ly^STALUATIO/^? - 

Fig.  140. — Detail  of  elevator  pit  and  dump  logs. 


exposed  to  the  weather,  it  is  difficult  to  move  about,  and 
engine  power  is  not  so  conveniently  applied. 

The    stationary    elevator    is    housed    inside    the    elevator 
building,  in  a  permanent  location.     The  power  may  be  con- 


154 


GRAIN-STORAGE  BUILDINGS 


nected  up  by  means  of  a  line  shaft,  in  permanent  form.     It 
is  not  exposed  to  the  weather. 

Elevators  may  be  dumped  by  an  overhead  wagon  jack  or 
by  dump  logs.  Both  methods  are  used,  and  both  are  satis- 
factory. The  dump  logs  must  be  installed  at  the  time  the 
floor  is  laid. 

The  hopper  may  be  of  the  pit  type,  set  below  the  floor, 
or  a  movable  boot  above  the  floor  level.  The  pit  may  be  made 
to  accommodate  a  load  of  grain  without  operating  the  elevating 
machinery.  The  elevating  sections  consist  of  a  box,  or  trough, 
through  which  the  cups  or  fins  carry  the  grain.  The  elevators 
are  made  in  sections,  and  may  be  purchased  for  the  height  of 
the  building. 

The  head  of  the  elevator  consists  of  a  dumping  device, 
hopper,  and  distributor  spout.  A  cupola  is  required  on  the 
building  to  give  sufficient  headroom,  so  that  the  grain  may  be 
distributed  to  all  parts  of  the  building. 

Handling  the  Grain. — In  the  well-equipped,  combined  corn 
crib  and  granary,  practically  all  of  the  hand  work  has  been 
ehminated.  The  elevator  and  dump  will  carry  the  corn  from 
the  wagon  to  the  cribs,  or  small  grain  to  the  overhead  bins. 
From  the  crib,  the  corn  may  be  raked  to  the  shelling  trench 
and  to  the  sheller.  If  desired  the  shelled  corn  may  be 
re-elevated  to  the  bins.  From  the  bins  the  grain  may  be 
spouted  to  the  wagons  in  the  driveway.  If  a  sheller  and 
grinder  is  included  in  the  equipment,  it  is  possible  to  convey 

the  corn  from  the  bins 
to  the  machines  by 
gravity,  by  a  system  of 
spouts. 

Ventilators. — In  the 
early  corn-harvesting 
season   the    corn    con- 


•Vt/tT  rocT- 

•PUcfc  Heri*«nfally 


•Vt/1TILAT0R3    l»OR    CRIBS 


Fig.  141. — ^Ventilators  for  cribs. 


tains  a  high  percentage 

of  moisture.    When  this 

content    is  high,  it  is  desirable    to    introduce    air  ducts  and 

flues  into  the  mass   of  the  corn  to  hasten  the  curing  process 


VENTILATORS  155 

and  to  prevent  spoilage.     Flues  are  made  to  set  over  the  shell- 
ing trench  and  passages  are  made  to  extend  across  the  crib 


Fig.  142. — An  old  style  rail  corn  crib. 

to  ventilate   and  dry  the  grain.     Drain  tile  placed  through 
the  corn  are  convenient  and  efficient. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

SILOS 

The  silo  is  one  of  the  most  important  buildings  on  the 
live-stock  farm  for  the  preservation  of  green  forage.  It 
affords  an  economical  storage,  preserves  the  corn  or  forage 
crop  in  a  succulent,  palatable  condition,  and  utilizes  the  crop 
completely  as  a  feed.  A  silo  must  have  several  features, 
essential  to  secure  good,  sweet  silage,  regardless  of  the  type 
or  material  used.  Other  features,  not  absolutely  essential, 
add  to  the  success  and  value  of  the  silo. 

Essential  Features 

Strong  Walls. — The  walls  should  be  made  sufficiently 
strong,  by  reinforcing,  to  resist  the  bursting  pressure  of  the 
silage.  The  silage  is  packed  firmly  when  stored,  and  as  it 
settles,  the  outward  pressure  is  still  greater,  and  the  wall  must 
withstand  severe  strains. 

Smooth  Walls. — During  settlement,  the  silage  slides  down 
the  wall.  Projections  or  rough  joints  hinder  free  and  easy 
settlement,  and  air  pockets  are  formed,  which  cause  spoil- 
age for  some  distance  around  the  pocket.  Smooth  walls 
allow  normal  settlement. 

Tight  Walls. — For  the  preservation  of  silage,  it  is  neces- 
sary that  the  walls  retain  the  moisture  inside  the  silo,  and 
exclude  the  air.     The  silo  walls  must  be  air  and  water  tight. 

Desirable  Features 

Durability. — The  silo  should  be  so  constructed  and  braced 
that  it  will  be  of  service  over  a  long  period  of  years.  A  silo 
should    return    the    first    cost    in    two    or  three    years,  but 

156 


DESIRABLE  FEATURES  157 

the  greater  the  durabihty,  the  more  profitable  the  invest- 
ment. 

Low  Repair  Cost. — Constant  attention  and  repairs  to  any 
farm  building  lowers  the  profit  from  the  building.  The  silo 
should  be  of  such  construction  that  it  requires  httle  atten- 
tion. 

Good  Location. — The  silo  should  be  accessible  for  filling, 
both  for  the  wagons  and  filler.  For  the  dairy  barn,  the  silo 
should  be  near  one  end  of  the  feed  alley.  For  beef  cattle, 
it  should  be  near  the  yards,  and  arranged  so  full  loads  of 
silage  may  be  taken  directly  from  the  chute  at  one  time. 

Wind  Resistance. — Shelter  and  bracing,  together  with 
substantial  construction,  will  tend  to  prevent  the  silo  from 
blowing  down  in  high  winds. 

Frost  Resistance. — In  severe  weather  the  silage  will  freeze 
in  any  silo.  Double  walls,  dead-air  spaces,  or  insulating 
material  will  retard  freezing,  and  will  also  retard  subsequent 
thawing.  If  the  silo  is  sheltered  from  the  winter  winds,  and 
set  where  direct  sunlight  will  strike  it,  the  freezing  can  be 
partly  prevented.  Silage  is  not  damaged  materially  by 
freezing,  if  it  is  thawed  before  feeding,  and  fed  immediately 
after  it  is  thawed.  If  the  silage  is  removed  around  the  outer 
edge  first,  and  the  top  of  the  silage  kept  in  the  shape  of  a  low 
hay  shock,  much  of  the  trouble  is  avoided.  The  center  of  the 
silage  should  not  be  removed  and  the  sides  left,  simply  because 
they  are  frozen. 

Simplicity  of  Construction. — A  silo  easily  constructed,  with- 
out highly  skilled  labor,  is  of  advantage  to  the  farmer.  A  short 
period  of  erection  is  usually  desired. 

Appearance. — The  silo  is  a  prominent  building  in  the 
group,  and  a  good  appearance  is  necessary  for  making  the 
farmstead  attractive. 

Cost. — The  upkeep  cost,  length  of  life,  and  capacity  are  as 
important  as  the  first  cost,  and  the  more  expensive  silo  may 
be  the  best  investment  when  figured  over  a  term  of  years. 


158 


SILOS 


Size  and  Capacity 

Amounts  Fed. — Experience  determines  the  exact  amount 
of  silage  to  be  fed  to  farm  animals.  The  following  table  indi- 
cates the  average  amounts  usually  recommended: 


Pounds 
per  Day 


Dairy  cows 

Stock  cattle 

Fattening  cattle 

Calves 

Sheep 


35  to  40 

20 

25 

12 

3 


If  the  number  of  stock  is  known,  and  the  length  of  the 
feeding  season  determined,  the  number  of  tons  needed  can  be 
found,  and  the  size  of  the  silo  made  accordingly. 

Rate  of  Feeding. — To  keep  the  silage  sweet,  it  is  neces- 
sary that  some  silage  be  taken  off  the  top  each  day.  The  rate 
of  removal  will  depend  on  the  weather,  but  from  1|  to  2  inches 
should  be  fed  off  each  day.  The  diameter  of  the  silo  will 
vary  with  the  number  of  head  of  stock  to  be  supplied.  The 
following  table,  from  Nebraska  bulletin  138,  shows  the  number 
of  dairy  cows  supplied  by  silos  of  different  diameters: 


Diameter,  Feet 

No.  of  Head 

.       10 

13 

12 

19 

14 

26 

16 

34 

18 

42 

Capacity. — The  capacity  of  round  silos,  in  tons,  based 
on  the  tables  by  King,  of  the  Wisconsin  Station,  are  given  in 
the  following  table : 


SIZE  AND  CAPACITY 


159 


Diameter,  Feet 

Height  in  Feet 

28 

30 

32 

34 

36' 

38 

40 

10 

42 

47 

51 

56 

61 

65 

70 

12 

61 

67 

74 

80 

87 

94 

101 

14 

83 

91 

100 

109 

118 

128 

138 

16 

108 

119 

131 

143 

155 

167 

180 

18 

151 

166 

181 

196 

212 

229 

Weight  at  Different  Depths. — The  weight  of  the  silage  is 
greater  in  a  high  silo  than  in  a  low  one,  as  the  pressure  com- 
pacts it  to  a  greater  weight  in  the  lower  part.  As  a  result, 
the  high  silo  is  the  more  economical,  and  the  increase  of 
capacity  should  usually  be  secured  by  increasing  the  height, 
rather  than  the  diameter,  in  a  new  silo.  The  following  table, 
based  on  Iowa,  Nebraska,  and  Wisconsin  figures,  show  the 
weight  at  different  depths: 


Depth  of  Silage 

Average  Weight, 

from  Top  Feet 

per  cu.ft. 

4 

21.25 

8 

24.50 

12 

27.50 

16 

30.50 

20 

33.33 

24 

36. 

28 

38.33 

32 

40.62 

36 

42.75 

40 

45. 

44 

47. 

48 

49. 

To  determine  the  amount  of  silage  remaining  in  a  silo 
partially  emptied,  it  is  necessary  to  multiply  the  cubic  space 
of  the  total  fill  of  silage  by  the  mean  weight  for  the  depth 


160 


SILOS 


considered,  and  subtract  from  this  figure  the  mean  weight 
of  the  amount  used.  The  remainder  should  indicate  closely 
the  amount  remaining. 

Silo  Construction 

Foundation. — The  sohd  concrete  foundation  is  the  most 
conamon  for  silos.     It  should  be  made  10  inches  wide,  and 


4-'  Hollow  Tilt 
Wall 


IO*Cbncr«.t€  Wail- 


A-'  TMoo 


•31L0  •  foo/iD  ATio/1  -wall- 
Fig.  143. 


SIrOTlon 
HOLLOW  TILE  SILO  DOOR 

Fig.  144. — Detail  of  concrete  door 
frame  for  hollow  tile  silo. 


extend  from  below  the  frost  Hne  to  a  point  several  inches 
above  grade.  A  1:2:4  wet  mixture  of  concrete  should  be  used. 
The  trench  should  be  laid  out  to  the  diameter  of  the  silo.  The 
part  above  ground  is  poured  in  forms,  made  of  thin  boards, 
and  bent  to  shape.  The  top  of  the  wall  must  be  smooth  and 
level. 

The  earth  inside  the  forms  may  be  excavated,  after  the 
concrete  has  hardened,  to  secure  additional  space.  The 
foundation  should  be  3|  to  4  feet  deep,  and  most  builders  prefer 
to  excavate  to  the  depth  of  the  foundation.  This  space  is 
secured  at  shght  cost  and  it  is  not  difficult  to  lift  the  silage  a 
few  feet.  The  inside  of  the  foundation  wall  should  be 
plastered  with  a  cement  plaster,  to  make  a  smooth  wall. 


SILO  CONSTRUCTION 


161 


Walls. — Silos  are  usually  designated,  as  to  type,  by  the 
material  used  in  the  wall  construction.  The  general  classes  of 
silos  are  wood,  masonry,  and  metal,  the  first  two  comprising 
most  of  the  silos  in  common  use. 

Doors. — Doors  for  the  silo  may  be  of  the  individual  or 
continuous  type.  The  individual  doors  are  spaced  at  intervals 
of  about  4  feet  on  centers,  each  door  set  in  a  separate  frame. 
With  this  door  it  is  necessary  to  lift  the  silage  several  feet, 
until  the  next  door  is  reached.  The  continuous  door  has  sides, 
or  jambs  of  masonry  or  steel,  and  cross-ties  prevent  the  jambs 
from  spreading,  the  ties  serving  as  a  ladder  in  many  silos. 


OILO^OOOR' 

Fig.  145. — Detail  of  door  to 
fit  frame  shown  in    Fig.  144. 


Fig.  146. 


The  continuous  door  is  used  almost  entirely  at  present,  and  is 
made  in  sections  convenient  to  handle. 

The  doors  are  of  two  thicknesses  of  wood,  and  are  made 
to  fit  into  a  rebate,  or  ledge,  in  the  jambs.  To  make  a  tight 
joint  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  felt  gasket  or  some  plastic  material 
between  the  door  and  the  jamb.  Clay,  mixed  to  a  putty 
consistency,  or  a  linseed  meal  paste  may  be  used. 

Chute. — Chutes  are  used  to  cover  the  doors,  and  afford 
a  means  of  throwing  down  silage  without  trouble  from  the 
wind.  Wood  chutes  are  easy  to  make  and  cost  less  than  the 
other  types.     Metal  and  concrete  are  used  in  some  cases. 

Roof. — In  many  localities  the  silo  is  not  provided  with 
a  roof.  The  purpose  of  the  roof  is  to  afford  protection  from 
rain  and  from  freezing.  The  roof  will  improve  the  appearance 
of  the  silo,  but  if  the  protection  is  not  needed,  the  roof 
may  be  omitted. 


162  SILOS 

The  two  roof  types  commonly  found  are  the  low  conical 
roof  and  the  round  gambrel  roof,  which  is  sometimes  locally 
known  as  the  ''  hip  "  roof.  The  conical  roof  may  be  made  of 
wood,  metal,  or  concrete.  The  wood  roof  is  of  ordinary  frame 
construction,  using  2  by  4  rafters,  sheathing,  and  shingles,  or 
prepared  roofing.  The  metal  roof  is  a  commercial  product, 
and  may  be  purchased.  If  the  metal  roof  is  not  anchored  very 
firmly,  it  is  hkely  to  blow  off.  Concrete  is  a  desirable  material 
for  the  roof;  it  must  be  reinforced,  and  supported  until  the 
concrete  has  set.  The  low  roof  makes  it  impossible  to  fill  the 
silo  fuU  to  the  top,  and  after  the  silage  has  settled  there  will 
be  some  waste  space.  Tramping  is  not  easily  accomplished 
near  the  top. 

In  the  gambrel  roof  the  silage  can  be  filled  to  the  top  of  the 
wall,  or  slightly  higher,  and  thus  increase  the  capacity.  The 
gambrel  roof  is  made  of  frame  construction,  but  is  more  diffi- 
cult to  make,  and  costs  about  twice  as  much  as  the  low 
roof. 

Reinforcement. — The  outward  pressure  tending  to  burst 
the  silo  depends  upon  the  depth  of  the  silage.  Professor  King 
of  Wisconsin  determined  that  the  pressure  increased  1 1  pounds 
per  foot  for  each  foot  of  depth — thus  at  the  bottom  of  a 
32-foot  silo  the  pressure  is  352  pounds  per  square  foot.  Steel, 
in  the  form  of  rods  or  bars,  is  the  common  reinforcing  material. 
In  the  stave  silo  the  steel  may  be  in  the  form  of  hoops.  In 
most  of  the  masonry  silos,  the  steel  is  bedded  in  the  wall 
material  or  in  the  mortar  joints.  The  steel  should  be  carefully 
figured  to  withstand  any  strains  hkely  to  be  placed  upon  it. 
A  water  tank  requires  five  or  six  times  as  much  steel  as  a  silo 
of  the  same  height. 

The  amount  of  steel  varies  from  the  bottom  to  the  top, 
requiring  less  steel  to  care  for  the  pressure  near  the  top  of  the 
silo.  The  following  formula,  adapted  from  a  tank  formula 
by  Taylor  and  Thompson,  is  used  to  determine  the  amount  of 
steel  for  the  silo: 

,        UHD 


TYPES  OF  SILOS  163 

where  H     is  height  of  silo  in  feet  above  section  considered; 
D     is  diameter  of  silo  in  feet; 
An    is  area  of  steel  in  square  inches,  per  foot  of  height 

at  section  considered; 
fs      is  the  allowable  stress,  per  square  inch  of  steel — 

12,000  to  16,000  is  used; 
11     is  a  factor  depending  upon  the  silage  pressure. 

Example. — How  much  horizontal  reinforcing  is  required 
for. each  8-inch  joint,  for  a  silo  14  feet  in  diameter,  and  32  feet 
high?   Steel  required  for  bottom  joints. 

1 1 X  32  X 14 
Afl=— —  =  .098  square  inch  per  foot  of  height. 

The  joints  are  8  inches  or  f  feet  apart,  f  of  .098  =  .065 
square  inch.  This  would  be  secured  in  three  No.  3  wires,  each 
with  an  area  of  ^  square  inch 

Types  of  Silos 

Each  of  the  general  divisions  of  wood  and  masonry  silos 
have  several  forms  that  are  successful  and  widely  used,  each 
of  which  types  will  be  discussed.  The  metal  silo  is  not  widely 
used,  and  the  cost  is  higher  than  for  the  other  types.  Wood 
is  the  most  common  and  best  known  type,  and  the  masonry 
silos  are  being  used  in  increasing  numbers. 

Wood  Silos 

Wood-stave  Silo. — This  is  the  most  common  type  of 
wood  silo.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest  forms,  and  is  very  efficient. 
When  properly  braced  and  cared  for  the  stave  silo  should 
last  from  ten  to  twenty  years.  It  is  now  being  replaced  to 
some  extent  by  the  more  permanent  masonry  types.  The 
staves  are  made  from  a  high-grade  of  cypress,  white  pine, 
redwood,  fir,  or  hemlock.  The  size  of  the  stave  is  about  2  by 
6  inches,  and  each  one  is  beveled  to  fit  the  curve  of  the  silo, 
and  tongued  and  grooved  to  give  a  tight  fit.     The  walls  are 


164 


SILOS 


tight,  smooth,  and  when  properly  hooped,  are  strong.  Bracing 
by  means  of  stay  wires  is  necessary  to  prevent  the  silo  from 
blowing  down. 

The  stave  silo  requires  some  attention  to  keep  the  hoops 
tightened  in  the  summer.  A  barrel  left  exposed  to  the  sun 
and  rain  for  a  season  becomes  loose,  and  the  staves  may  fall 
down.  The  silo  is  comparable  to  a  barrel  with  the  head 
removed,  and  care  is  necessary  to  keep  it  from  disinte- 
gration.    The  hoops  should  be  tightened  once  a  week  during 


REDWOOD 
INNER  WAU 


Fig.  147.— Allowing  cuiisLruciion  ui  the  wood  hoop  silo. 


the  summer  when  the  silo  is  empty;  when  it  is  filled,  the  hoops 
should  be  loosened,  as  the  moist  silage  swells  the  staves,  and 
the  hoops  shrink  with  the  coming  of  cold  weather.  The  hoops 
should  be  regulated  so  the  staves  are  firm  at  all  times,  but  not 
tight  enough  to  crush  the  wood. 

Panel  Silo. — The  panel  silo  is  known  by  several  trade 
names.  It  consists  of  ribs  or  uprights  set  20  to  24  inches 
apart,  and  matched  boards  set  horizontally  between  the  ribs. 
Steel  hoops  are  placed  around  the  silo  and  hold  the  boards  in 


WOOD  SILOS 


165 


place.  This  silo  is  not  round,  but  is  in  the  form  of  a  many- 
sided  polygon,  each  panel  being  straight.  The  advantage  of 
this  type  is  that  short  pieces  of  material  are  used  in  the 
construction. 

Triple- wall  Silo. — This  silo  is  the  ordinary  stave  type,  with 
a  layer  of  insulating  material  over  the  staves,  and  a  thin  drop 


Fig.  148, — The  wood-hoop  silo.     Fig.  149. — A  creosoted  wood-stave  silo. 

siding  bent  to  form,  and  nailed  over  the  outside.  The  siding 
serves  as  hooping,  and  protects  the  staves.  Old  stave  silos 
may  be  covered  in  this  manner,  and  their  usefulness  is 
prolonged. 

Wood-hoop  Silo. — The  wood-hoop  silo  is  made  by  building 
large  wooden  hoops,  from  four  or  five  thicknesses  of  thin  wood, 
bent  to  the   circle.     They  are  spaced  twenty-four  to  thirty 


166  SILOS 

inches  apart,  and  matched  flooring  is  placed  inside  and  outside 
the  hoops.     This  affords  a  double  wall  with  dead  air  space. 

Creosoted-stave  Silo. — The  stave-silo  material  is  sometimes 
treated  with  creosote  preservative  to  lengthen  the  life  of  the 
wood.  The  three  methods  of  creosoting  are  painting,  dipping, 
and  immersing  under  pressure.  The  latter  method  is  prefer- 
able, as  the  creosote  is  forced  into  the  pores  of  the  wood.  The 
use  of  the  preservative  will  make  the  cheaper  woods  last 
longer,  but  the  material  should  be  of  a  good  grade. 

There  are  some  other  types  of  silos  on  the  market,  but  for 
the  most  part  they  are  adaptations  of  those  described. 

Masonry  Silos 

The  masonry  silos  include  brick,  hollow  tile,  and  concrete. 
The  concrete  silos  may  be  concrete  block,  cement  staves,  or 
monoUthic  concrete. 

Brick  Silos. — This  type  of  silo  has  been  in  use  for  a  number 
of  years.  The  brick,  if  of  a  good  grade,  makes  a  nice  appearing 
silo.  The  chief  difficulty  is  to  secure  proper  horizontal  rein- 
forcing in  a  4-inch  wall,  with  a  narrow  mortar  joint.  A  flat 
bar,  crimped  on  the  inner  edge,  to  form  a  curve,  is  now  used. 
The  bar  is  about  f  by  IJ  inches  in  size,  and  bonds  well  into  the 
joint  The  wall  should  be  laid  up  carefully  so  it  is  not  porous. 
The  interior  is  plastered  with  a  cement  mortar,  to  insure  a 
smooth,  tight  wall.  Paving  brick  are  used  in  the  construction 
of  the  brick  silo. 

Hollow-tile  Silos. — The  use  of  hollow  tile  or  clay  blocks  for 
silos  was  developed  by  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station  and  the 
type  is  usually  known  as  the  Iowa  silo.  The  first  one  was 
erected  in  1908,  and  is  still  in  use. 

The  blocks  used  are  4  to  6  inches  thick,  and  the  4-inch 
block  is  preferred  by  some  masons,  as  it  is  easier  to  handle. 
One  or  more  air  spaces  are  formed  in  the  block.  Some  blocks 
have  special  grooves  to  receive  the  reinforcing.  The  silo  blocks 
are  curved  to  the  form  of  the  silo  wall,  and  can  be  secured  from 
widely  distributed  factories. 


MASONRY  SILOS 


167 


Experienced  labor  should  be  secured  to  lay  up  the  blocks, 
it  requires  care  and  experience  to  get  a  good,  tight  wall. 


Fig.  150. — A  brick  silo. 


Fig.  151. — The  Iowa  or  hollow 
clay  block  silo. 


Men  specialized  in  the  erection  of  tile  silos  usually  do  better 
work  than  masons  not  familiar  with  tile  construction. 


Fig.  152.— Shapes  of  hollow  blocks  used  in  silo  construction. 

The  reinforcing  consists  of  heavy  steel  wire  embedded 
in  the  mortar  joints.  Reinforced  concrete  jambs  are  used,  and 
these  are  tied  across  at  intervals,  to  prevent  spreading.     The 


168 


SILOS 


continuous  door  Is  used.  The  mortar  joints  should  be  pointed 
both  on  the  inside  and  outside  wall,  as  a  precaution  against 
leakage.  Since  the  vertical  joints  are  the  weakest  part  of  a 
tile  silo,  care  must  be  taken  to  fill  the  joint  and  secure  a  good 
bond.  As  an  additional  safeguard  the  silo  should  be  given  a 
wash  of  pure  cement  and  water  inside  to  fill  the  pores. 

The  tile  silo  costs  more  than  that  of  wood,  but  is  strong, 


Fig.  153. — A  concrete-block  silo. 


Fig.  154. — A  concrete-stave  silo. 


permanent,   attractive,  and  contains  one  or  more  dead  air 
spaces.     Either  the  conical  or  gambrel  roof  may  be  used. 

Concrete-block  Silo. — There  are  several  patented  blocks 
used  for  silo  construction.  Some  are  curved,  and  have  imita- 
tion rock  faces.  Others  are  made  in  various  forms,  and  named 
from  the  form.  Reinforcing  is  either  embedded  in  the  block 
or  placed  in  the  mortar  joint.  Stucco  is  sometimes  appHed  to 
the  surface,  for  appearance,  and  to  fill  up  the  pores.     A  pure 


MASONRY  SILOS 


169 


cement  wash  is  applied  to  the  interior.     Some  contractors  use 
alum,  or  commercial  waterproofing  compounds  in  this  wash. 

Cement-stave  Silos. — The  Playford  cement  stave  was 
originally  used  in  a  Michigan  silo  in  1904.  In  the  past  few 
years,  this  and  other  patented  staves  have  been  widely  used. 

The  Playford  block  is  book- 
shaped,  2i  inches  thick,  10  inches 
wide,  ana  28  inches  long.  The  In- 
terlocking patent  has  an  interlock- 
ing end  joint.  The  Caldwell  block 
has  an  end  step  joint  and  rein- 
forcing in  the  block.  The  Perfection 
block  has  a  hollow  side  joint  which 
is  filled  with  mortar. 

The  staves  are  set  with  the  end 
joints  broken,  or  interlocked,  and 
the  silo  staves  bound  with  steel 
hoops,  similar  to  the  wood  staves. 
In  medium  or  large  silos,  it  is 
advisable  to  place  a  hoop  at  the 
middle  and  end  of  the  stave,  or 
about  15  inches  apart.  This  re- 
quires special  door  spreaders  for  the  hoops.  The  hoops  are 
3^  to  i  inch  in  diameter,  and  threaded  at  the  ends.  Since 
steel  and  concrete  expand  and  contract  at  the  same  rate,  the 
hoops  do  not  need  tightening  in  the  summer.  The  staves  are 
made  in  a  factory,  and  shipped  to  the  job.     Only  experienced 

help  should  be  used,  or 
leaning  and  twisted 
silos  may  result. 

After  the  silo  is 
erected,  the  hoops  are 
tightened,  and  the  interior  given  a  cement  wash.  The  cost 
of  the  stave  silo  is  about  the  same  as  for  a  good  wood 
structure . 

Monolithic  Concrete  Silos. — Solid  concrete  makes  an  excel- 
lent silo.     Standard  forms  are  used,  and  the  entire  work  is 


Fig.  155. — One  type  of  door 
used  with  concrete-stave 
construction. 


•COM/lOH-TrPEO- CO/1  CRETE -STAVtO-KJR-SlLOa 

Fig.  156. 


170 


SILOS 


done  on  the  building  site.  The  time  required  for  erection  is 
longer  than  for  the  other  types.  The  cost  can  be  materially 
reduced  if  farm  help  can  be  used  for  most  of  the  work.  If 
sand  and  gravel  are  close  at  hand,  the  concrete  silo  is  not 
expensive.  The  walls  are  usually  built  of  a  rich  mixture  of 
concrete,  in  the  proportion  of  1 :  2:  4.     It  should  be  well  spaded 


Fig.  157. — A  monolithic  concrete 
silo. 


Fig.  158. — A  water  storage  tank  on 
hollow-block  silo. 


to  give  a  smooth  wall,  and  prevent  the  aggregates  from  separat- 
ing. The  reinforcing  is  embedded  in  the  wall.  The  only 
upkeep  required  for  this  silo  is  an  occasional  washing  on  the 
inside  with  a  cement  wash. 

Pit  Silos. — In  sections  where  the  soil  is  dry,  and  will  not 
cave  readily,  the  pit  silo  is  possible.  A  circular  hole  is  dug, 
and  the  hole  plastered  or  bricked  up,  similar  to  a  cistern.  The 
pit  silo  is  cheap,  easily  made,  and  satisfactory.     The  filling 


MASONRY  SILOS  171 

requires  little  power,  but  there  is  considerable  power  neces- 
sary to  lift  the  silage  from  the  pit. 

Tank  on  Silo. — The  silo  tower  affords  a  splendid  elevation 
for  the  water-storage  tank.  The  tank  is  frequently  placed  on 
the  masonry,  hollow-block  and  concrete  silo.  Care  should 
be  taken  in  thoroughly  waterproofing  the  tank  wall,  which 
is  constructed  of  hollow  tile  or  brick.  The  supply  pipe  should 
be  well  protected  against  freezing.  When  these  two  features 
are  considered  and  guarded  against  this  tank  cannot  be 
equaled  for  cheapness  of  tower,  water  pressure,  and  service. 
Either  a  beam-supported  concrete  floor  slab  or  a  low  conical- 
shaped  reinforced  floor  may  be  used  for  bottom  of  tank.  A 
low  conical-shaped  roof  is  usually  placed  over  the  tank  with 
scuttle  for  access  to  the  interior. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

IMPLEMENT  AND  MACHINE  SHELTERS 

Farm  machines  have  always  suffered  from  lack  of  care 
and  housing.  When  farm  tools  were  simple  in  construction 
and  low  in  cost  the  loss  was  not  serious,  a  smaU  space  in  the 
barn  or  crib  being  sufficient  to  house  the  more  important 


Fig.  159. — Farm  machinery  exposed  to  the  weather. 

implements.  At  the  present  time  farm  machines  are  expensive. 
The  tractor,  car,  motor  truck,  and  binder,  as  well  as  the  more 
common  machines,  lose  value  rapidly  when  constantly  exposed 
to  the  weather.  Official  estimates  place  the  annual  loss,  in 
depreciation  due  to  lack  of  shelter,  at  more  than  100  million 
dollars. 

The  development  of  farm  management  ideas  in  farming 
has  led  to  a  reahzation  of  the  losses  in  farm  machinery,  and 
the  value  of  the  shelter  is  now  understood.     Some  arguments 

172 


CONVENIENCE  173 

have  been  brought  forward  to  the  effect  that  if  machines 
were  properly  greased,  and  painted  every  year,  the  loss  due  to 
exposure  would  not  be  serious.  The  general  opinion  of 
practical  men  is  that  housing  will  increase  the  life  of  farm 
machines  by  five  years  or  more,  a  saving  which  would  pay  for 
the  cost  of  the  shelter  in  a  few  years.  Sheltered  machinery 
is  better  in  appearance,  longer  hved,  and  more  efl&cient  than 
neglected  equipment. 

Essentials  of  Machine  Shelters. — The  necessary  quahfica- 
tions  of  a  machine  shed  are  that  it  give  protection,  afford 
convenience  in  storage,  and  provide  plenty  of  space. 

Protection. — The  principal  function  of  the  shelter  is  the 
protection  of  the  implements  from  the  elements  and  from 
animals.  Exposure  to  the  weather  causes  rust  of  metal  and 
decay  of  wood.  Tractor  parts,  plowshares,  binder  knotters 
and  other  complicated  parts  will  not  operate  properly  unless 
protected  from  the  effects  of  rain,  snow,  and  dust.  Small 
animals  should  be  kept  from  the  machines,  because  of  the 
danger  to  the  stock  as  well  as  harm  to  the  machinery.  Farm 
poultry,  especially,  should  not  be  allowed  to  make  a  roosting 
place  of  the  machines.  During  the  winter  season  the  machines 
should  be  repaired  and  adjusted,  and  protection  to  the  worker 
at  such  times  is  important. 

To  meet  these  requirements  of  protection,  the  machine 
shelter  should  be  tightly  inclosed  on  all  sides  and  have  a 
tight  roof.  Continuous  doors  along  one  side  are  much  prefer- 
able to  the  open  shed.  Windows  at  intervals  will  supply 
better  light  by  which  to  work.  A  concrete  or  plank  floor  is 
desirable  as  an  added  protection. 

Convenience. — Correct  width,  proper  location  of  doors, 
and  large  openings  will  add  to  the  convenience  of  the 
machinery  building.  The  location  should  be  such  that  wagons 
and  spreaders  may  be  driven  into  the  shelter,  and  not  run  in 
by  hand  each  time.  If  the  less-used  machines  are  placed 
at  the  rear  of  the  building,  the  regularly  used  equipment  will 
be  convenient  to  the  doors.  The  grouping  of  machinery 
according  to  seasonal  use  is  recommended. 


174 


IMPLEMENT  AND  MACHINE  SHELTERS 


Space. — Sufficient  space  should  be  provided  for  all  of 
the  machinery  Ukely  to  be  used  on  the  farm.  An  inventory  of 
machines  should  be  taken,  and  measurements  made  to  deter- 
mine the  size  of  the  building.  Some  machines  may  be  taken 
apart,  or  the  tongues  removed  in  order  to  save  space.  The 
table  will  show  the  average  amount  of  floor  space  required 
for  the  commonly  used  machinery.  The  figures  for  height 
are  unimportant,  except  for  the  hay  loader. 

The  following  figures  are  for  average  machines  with  the 
tongue  removed : 


Implement 

Walking  plow 

Gang  plow 

Engine  plow,  4  gang . . . 

Harrow,  per  section 

Disk  harrow 

Land  roller 

Grain  drill,  8  hoe 

Corn  planter 

l-row  cultivator 

2-row  cultivator 

Sulky  rake 

Side  dehvery  rake 

Sweep  rake 

Hay  loader 

Mower 

Binder,  7'  cut 

Silage  cutter „ .  . . 

26-inch  thresher 

Wagon 

Buggy 

Tractor 

Automobile 


Width 


Length 


2' 

7' 

5' 

9' 

T 

6" 

)2' 

V 

6" 

5 

8' 

4' 

8' 

3' 

5' 

10'  6" 

6' 

5' 

5' 

r 

7' 

6" 

r 

5' 

11' 

10' 

6" 

12' 

10' 

12' 

9' 

10'  6" 

6' 

6' 

9' 

14' 

7' 

12' 

8' 

26' 

T 

14' 

6' 

9' 

7' 

12' 

e^ 

12' 

10'  high 


Location. — The  machinery  building  should  be  easily 
accessible  from  the  fields  and  horse  barn.  A  location  on  the 
lane  or  drive  to  the  fields  is  desirable,  and  one  closer  to  the 
house   than   that   of   the   barns   is   not   objectionable.     The 


SIZE 


175 


shelter  may  also  serve  as  a  windbreak  for  the  stock  barns,  and 
should  be  on  a  convenient  driveway  in  order  that  the  wagon  and 
spreader  may  be  housed  each  day. 

Size. — The  width  of  the  building  depends  upon  the  amount 


T 


Binder 


leakt. 


/lower 


Corn    Sinolcr 


PbtWcr 


Tractor 


Planter 
— « 


Hay 

Lood  c  r 


A\onurfc 
9  p  rca  d  c  r- 


Fig.  160. — Floor  plan  of  implement  shed  showing  spacing  for 
machines. 


•COMBl/iATIOAf  •  SHOP»«  a-Al  ACH  1 AIE:  •  3H£D  • 

Fig.  161. — Floor  plan  of  a  combination  shop  and  machine  shed. 


of  machinery  to  be  stored  and  economical  considerations. 
For  small  amounts  of  machinery  a  width  of  18  feet  is  suitable. 
A  26-foot  building  will  shelter  a  wagon,  including  the  tongue, 
and  will  shelter  a  large  amount  of  machinery  per  foot  of 


176  IMPLEMENT  AND  MACHINE  SHELTERS 

length.  Buildings  wider  than  this  are  more  difficult  to  frame, 
and  storage  is  not  so  convenient.  Any  even  width  between 
18  and  30  feet  will  be  found  satisfactory. 

The  length  will  be  made  to  fit  the  amount  of  equipment 
used  on  the  farm,  and  should  be  made  in  units  of  10  or  12 
feet  for  best  results  in  storing.  Ten  feet  is  the  maximum 
height  necessary  to  accommodate  the  usual  farm  machines. 

Arrangement. — The  space  arrangement  should  be  made  with 
the  idea  of  storing  the  machinery  by  groups  according  to  the 
seasonal  use  in  the  field.  The  groups  will  usually  be  tillage 
tools,  seeding  and  cultivating  machinery,  harvesting  and  hay- 
ing machinery,  and  power  equipment.  Each  group  of  machines 
is  housed  in  a  section  of  the  building,  and  stored  in  such  a  way 
that  it  can  be  removed  in  the  order  of  its  use.  Tools  used 
only  once  in  the  year  should  be  placed  at  the  rear  of  the  building, 
while  carriages  or  other  frequently  used  equipment  should  be 
placed  near  the  door. 

For  storing  wagons,  spreaders,  and  tractors,  it  is  well  to 
have  a  door  at  each  side  of  the  building  in  order  that  these 
machines  may  be  driven  in  and  out  of  the  shelter  without  hand 
work  or  backing.  For  wagon  and  manure  spreader  a  closed 
shelter  is  not  essential,  and  this  part  may  be  simply  a  shed 
roof,  without  doors.  For  the  rest  of  the  building  continuous 
doors  on  a  parallel  track  installation  will  give  the  best  results. 

Types  of  Shelters. — The  machine  shelter  need  not  be 
expensive  if  it  affords  the  essentials  of  protection,  convenience, 
and  space.  Compared  with  the  barns,  the  machinery  building 
will  be  low  in  cost,  for  the  essentials  of  warmth,  drainage, 
sanitation,  etc.,  are  not  so  important.  Barn  space  is  too  expen- 
sive for  machine  housing. 

The  open-shed  house,  if  used,  affords  a  cheap  protection 
from  rain  and  snow,  but  it  is  not  so  desirable  as  the  closed 
building.  The  shed  is  opened  to  the  east  for  best  results. 
The  closed  building  with  doors  along  one  side  affords  full 
protection,  and  is  recommended  as  the  best.  Two-story 
buildings  have  loft  space  for  small  machines  and  miscel- 
laneous articles. 


CONSTRUCTION 


177 


Frame  construction  is  most  commonly  used,  and  is  satis- 
factory. Hollow  tile  or  cement  products  may  be  used  in  the 
wall  construction  as  in  any  other  building. 

The  roof  shape  is  usually  of  the  shed,  gable,  gambrel  or 
"  combination  "  type.     The  combination  roof  has  two  unequal 


:B- 


1=/ 


l=J 


SIDR-    ELtVATlO/i  • 


-ynACMiytR-  shed- 


-t/ID-  fcUtVATIOT^' 


Fig.  162. — A  two-story  implement  shed. 


slopes,   with  the  object  of  securing  greater  headroom  with 
the  least  material. 

Construction. — The  foundation  of  the  machinery  building 
need  extend  only  about  IS  inches  below  the  grade  line.  The 
width  is  made  8  inches,  and  the  footing  is  widened  to  afford 
a  bearing  surface.  The 
masonry  is  carried  to  a 
height  of  12  inches  above 
the  ground  line. 

The  frame  walls  are 
made  of  1-inch  siding  or 
boarding  on  2  by  6 
studding  spaced  2  feet 
apart,  or  4  by  6  uprights 
spaced  6  feet  apart,  with 
nailing  strips  and  braces 
between.  The  walls 
should  be  carried  to  a 
height  of  10  feet  to  the 
plate.  The  roof  frame  must  be  cross  braced  and  trussed  for 
strength.     The  kind  of  framing  will  depend  on  the  width. 

The  floor  may  be  of  plank  or  concrete.     To  reduce  the  cost. 


•  C.ROS  »  aecTio/t  •  in ACHinfc  -  ©hm>  - 

163. — Cross-section  of  the  shed  shown 
in  Fig.  162. 


178  IMPLEMENT  AND  MACHINE  SHELTERS 

cinders  or  gravel  may  be  used  in  place  of  the  more  substan- 
tial flooring. 

Doors  should  be  strongly  built,  and  set  on  a  good  type  of 
track  and  rollers.  For  the  continuous  door  it  is  possible  to 
secure  a  parallel  track  outfit  which  makes  it  possible  to  open 
up  any  part  of  the  building, 

Garage 

Every  modern  farm  has  need  of  a  garage  for  at  least  one 
or  two  cars.  A  separate  building  for  power  equipment  is 
desirable,  as  no  machine  using  gasoUne  or  kerosene  should 


Fig.  164. — A  frame  garage. 

be  housed  in  the  barn,  corn  crib,  to  other  building  where  the 
fire  risk  is  great. 

A  garage  building  provides  a  shelter  for  the  car,  reduces 
the  fire  risk  in  other  buildings,  affords  storage  for  oils,  fuel,  and 
tools,  and  furnishes  working  space  for  handhng  repairs.  The 
garage  should  be  of  good  appearance,  fireproof,  light,  clean,  and 
reasonably  warm. 

Size. — The  actual  room  required  for  the  car  varies  from 
6  by  12  feet  to  7  by  16  feet.  To  provide  working  space  around 
the  machine,  and  room  for  a-  work  bench  and  other  conven- 
iences the  garage  should  be  12  by  16  feet  or  more.  For  two 
cars  the  minimum  size  should  be  18  feet  -each  way.     Doors 


GARAGE 


179 


should  be  8  to  9  feet  wide  and  8  feet  high.  The  height  of  the 
building  to  the  plate  need  not  be  naore  than  8|  feet.  Tight- 
fitting  doors  on  substantial  track  are  essential.  There  are 
several  patented  door  outfits  on  the  market  that  are  satisfactory. 
Two  or  more  windows  should  be  provided  to  allow  light  for 
working  with  the  car. 

Oils  and  Fuel. — Supphes  for  the  car  and  tractor  are 
usually  purchased  in  quantities  for  farm  use.  Oils  and  grease 
do  not  require  much  room  and  may  be  left  near  the  work- 
bench, if  kept  well  covered.  The  best  method  of  handhng 
gasoline  is  by  means  of  an  underground  tank,  several  feet  away 
from  the  building,  connected  by  a  line  of  pipe  and  gasohne 


Fig.  165. — Plan  and  elevation  of  two-car  garage. 


pump.  Fuel  oils  should  at  least  be  kept  tightly  covered  in 
metal  containers,  and  carefully  handled.  No  filling  should 
should  ever  be  done  at  night  with  open-flame  lights.  Matches 
and  cigars  will  prove  very  dangerous  around  the  fuels  in  the 
garage.  Oily  waste  and  rags  should  be  kept  in  metal  cans, 
and  destroyed  at  intervals. 

Appearance. — The  same  rules  of  appearance  apply  to  the 
garage  as  to  any  other  building  on  the  farm.  It  will  often  be 
noted  that,  for  some  reason,  the  garage  either  on  the  farm 
or  in  town  seems  to  be  built  without  any  regard  to  appeararce. 

Fireproofness. — The  garage  •  houses  valuable  machines, 
and  the  fire  risk  is  perhaps  greater  than  in  any  other  building  on 
the  farm.  Since  the  garage  is  a  small  building  the  cost  of 
fire-resisting  materials  is  small,  and  masonry  construction  is  a 


180  IMPLEMENT  AND  MACHINE  SHELTERS 

good  investment.  Most  of  the  danger  from  fire  comes  from 
within,  and  good  results  can  be  secured  by  concrete  floor, 
masonry  walls,  and  frame  roof  construction. 

Light  <^nd  Cleanliness. — These  elements  should  be  secured 
both  for  convenience  and  safety.  W.ndows  at  the  rear  of  the 
structure  and  one  on  each  side  will  afford  sufficient  natural 
light.  Electric  lights  should  furnish  the  only  source  of  night 
lighting  on  account  of  the  danger  from  open  flames.  The 
building  should  be  washed  frequently  and  all  accumulation 
of  litter  removed  promptly. 

Construction. — The  foundation  for  the  garage  should  extend 
about  12  inches  below  the  grade  and  for  frame  walls  the  foun- 
dation wall  is  carried  12  inches  above  grade.  A  4-inch,  one- 
course  cement  floor  sloped  to  a  drain  is  satisfactory.  Frame 
walls  are  made  of  2  by  4-inch  studding  with  1-inch  matched 
siding.  Studding  are  doubled  at  the  corners  and  diagonal 
braces  should  be  used  for  strengthening.  The  roof  is  usually 
constructed  in  either  the  gable  or  hip  style  with  2  by  4-inch 
rafters  and  1-inch  cross  ties. 

Hollow  tile,  brick,  or  concrete  are  favored  for  garage  con- 
struction on  account  of  their  fire-resisting  qualities. 

Tractor  Shelters 

The  increasing  use  of  the  farm  tractor  brings  the  problem 
of  a  tractor  shelter  to  many  farms.  In  too  many  cases  the 
problem  has  been  solved  by  leaving  the  tractor  in  the  open 
from  one  season  to  the  next;  but  it  is  an  expensive  machine, 
costing  as  much  or  more  than  the  motor  car,  and  since  its  work 
is  of  a  productive  nature  and  its  parts  are  more  exposed  than 
those  of  the  motor  car,  it  requires  shelter  and  care  equivalent 
to  that  given  the  motor  car  or  truck. 

The  space  needed  for  the  tractor  will  be  about  6  by  12 
feet,  with  additional  space  around  the  machine  for  conven- 
ience in  working.  So  far  as  the  requirements  of  a  tractor  shelter 
are  concerned,  they  are  similar  in  every  respect  to  those  of  the 
garage,  in  which  the  car  and  truck  are  housed.     The  tractor 


FARM  SHOP  181 

may  be  sheltered  in  a  separate  building,  or  with  the  car  or 
truck  in  a  double  garage. 

Farm  Shop 

Modern  farming  makes  extensive  use  of  power  equipment 
and  complex  machines.  Efficiency  demands  that  all  of  the 
equipment  be  kept  in  working  order.  The  farm  shop  is  valu- 
able in  the  busy  season  for  emergency  repairs,  and  during 
the  winter  season  for  thorough  overhauling  of  all  of  the  farm 
machinery.  In  many  localities  the  village  blacksmith  is  gone, 
and  it  is  becoming  difficult  to  secure  quick  repairs. 

Equipment. — It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  text  to  detail 
the  equipment  needed  in  the  farm  shop.  Usually  the  equip- 
ment will  be  built  up  gradually  from  a  small  beginning.  It 
is  best  in  all  cases  to  buy  a  few  good  tools  rather  than  complete 
sets  of  tools  of  questionable  quaUty.  The  farm  shop  should 
have  a  steel  square,  rules,  saws,  hammers,  chisels,  planes,  draw 
knife,  ratchet  brace,  and  boring  tools.  A  forge  and  anvil,  with 
blacksmithing  tools,  is  desirable  on  farms  with  considerable 
mechanical  equipment.  A  gasoline  engine  or  electric  motor 
will  operate  the  power  tools  in  the  well-equipped  shop. 

Size. — The  dimensions  of  the  farm  shop  should  be  made 
sufficient  to  accommodate  benches 
for  woodwork  and  forge,  cabinets 
for  tools,  and  at  least  one  large 
machine  such  as  a  binder  or  tractor. 
A  size  of  20  by  20  feet  will  be  the 
best.  To  accommodate  large  ma- 
chines brought  in  for  repair  work 
there  should  be  at  least  one  8 
or    9-foot     door,     and     preferably 


^T  I li 

^^  f 

I 


F-LOOR.     OPACBr 


-r-AR/n    SHOP  •  PLA/I  • 


a  large   door  in  each  end  of    the  Fig.  166. 

shop. 

Plan. — In  planning  the  shop  the  center  space  should  be 
kept  clear  of  equipment.  The  forge  and  carpentry  equip- 
ment should  be  separated  as  much  as  possible  to  reduce  fire 
risk.     The  forge  and  iron  bench  will  be  placed  at  the  side  near 


182  IMPLEMENT  AND  MACHINE  SHELTERS 

one  corner.  The  line  shaft  and  power  tools  may  be  along 
the  same  side.  The  carpenter  bench  should  be  placed  on  the 
opposite  side.  All  arrangements  should  be  made  to  throw 
light  on  the  work  to  be  done. 

Construction. — The  machine  shop  should  have  a  concrete 
floor,  and  either  masonry  or  frame  construction  is  satisfactory. 
The  framing  and  construction  follows  the  same  lines  as  the 
garage  and  tractor  shelter,  or  other  small  buildings. 

Combination  Garage  Building. — The  statement  was  made 
above  that  the  tractor  shelter,  garage,  and  tool  shop  all 
embodied  the  same  features  of  plan,  essentials,  and  construc- 
tion. The  same  tools,  oils,  and  fuels  are  used  for  all  the  power 
machines,  and  in  repair  work.  For  this  reason,  the  combina- 
tion building  to  include  all  of  the  shelter  and  repair  require- 
ments for  the  farm  is  often  used.  Such  an  arrangement  is 
economical  in  the  use  of  building  materials,  and  convenient 
for  handling  the  work.  The  principal  objection  to  the  combina- 
tion is  the  increased  fire  risk.  The  danger  from  fire  may  be 
minimized  by  the  use  of  fire-resisting  materials  and  care  in 
avoiding  the  accumulation  of  waste,  shavings,  or  grease  about 
the  building. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 


ICE  HOUSES 


Fig.  167. — A  concrete  ice 
house. 


The  country  home  has  double  use  for  ice,  as  compared  to 
the  city,  for  it  is  necessary  not  only  to  cool  the  products  to  be 
used  in  the  house,  but  also  to  preserve  the  perishable  products 
of  the  farm  until  they  are  marketed.  The  cost  of  the  ice  house 
is  a  small  factor,  and  the  labor  of 
cutting  and  packing  comes  at  a 
season  when  the  regular  farm  work 
is  not  pressing.  By  attention  to 
the  principles  of  ice  storage,  prac- 
tically every  farm  in  the  northern 
half  of  the  country  could  provide 
a  summer  supply  of  ice  with  little 
cost.  The  saving  in  products,  the 
better  condition  of  meats,  vege- 
tables, and  dairy  products,  and  the 

fewer  trips  to  market  which  are  necessary  will  soon  pay  for  the 
cost  of  the  ice  house. 

Types  of  Ice  Houses. — There  are  three  types  of  ice  houses 
in  common  use,  known  as  the  pit,  side  hill,  and  above-ground 
house.  The  pit  storage  may  be  used  where  the  soil  is  porous 
and  well  drained,  and  the  land  is  rolUng.  The  cost  of  this  type 
is  low,  as  the  only  cost  is  for  the  labor  of  digging  and  covering 
the  pit.  The  side-hill  type  is  possible  where  the  land  is  sloping 
and  a  pit  can  be  constructed  in  a  side  hill,  affording  drainage. 
A  part  of  the  house  is  built  above  ground.  The  house  which 
sets  entirely  above  ground  is  the  common  type,  and  is  suitable 
for  any  locality.  The  houses  of  this  type  are  usually  more 
convenient,  and  the  essentials  are  readily  embodied. 

183 


184 


ICE  HOUSES 


Essentials  of  Ice  Storage.— Regardless  of  the  type  of  house, 
the  three  essentials  of  insulation,  drainage,  and  ventilation 
must  be  embodied,  to  store  properly  the  ice  supply. 

Insulation. — Insulation  is  the  packing  necessary  on  all  sides 
of  the  ice  block  to  exclude  warmth,  and  to  hold  the  cold  within 
the  pack.  It  is  necessary  to  prevent,  so  far  as  possible,  the 
circulation  of  air  within  the  ice  block — a  minimum  of  ice 
surface  should  be  exposed.     The  natural  factors  of  shade  and 


SECTIQTf  •  inSOL ATtD  •  1C£  •  HOOSft-  - 


Fig.  168. — Section  of  an  insulated 
frame  ice  house. 


•  CRDSS-SECTIO;^  •  CO/^  CRETEr  ' 
•XCt-H003t:« 

Fig.  169. — Section  of  an  in- 
sulated concrete  ice  house. 


a  north  slope  should  be  considered  in  locating  the  house.  The 
materials  used  to  insulate  the  ice  are  chopped  straw,  sawdust, 
mill  shavings,  and  commercial  insulation,  principally  cork 
sheets  and  fiber  sheets. 

Chopped  straw  is  the  least  effective,  and  should  be  used 
only  when  the  other  materials  are  not  available.  Sawdust  is 
the  most  common  and  easily  secured,  and  for  average  conditions, 
it  is  recommended.  Sawdust  is  not  effective  when  wet,  and 
care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  material  dry.  Mill  shavings 
are  more  porous  than  sawdust,  hold  more  air  in  a  given  volume, 


DRAINAGE 


185 


and  for  that  reason  are  preferred  to  sawdust.  From  18  inches 
to  2  feet  of  sawdust  or  shavings  is  necessary  around  the  sides 
of  the  pack,  and  2  feet  at  the  top  and  bottom. 

Commercial  insulation  in  the  form  of  cork,  hair,  or  flax 
fiber  sheets  is  light,  easily  handled,  and  efficient.  The  cost 
is  higher  than  for  the  natural  materials,  but  their  use  is 
increasing.  The  best  use  of  commercial  insulation  is  probably 
in  connection  with  the  natural  insulating  materials  to  secure 
the  most  efficient  storage. 

Drainage. — An  accumulation  of  moisture  is  sure  to  result 
from  the  melting  of  the  ice.  If  allowed  to  remain,  the  insu- 
lation is  dampened,  and  the  lower  part  of  the  ice  block  is  hkely 
to  stand  in  water.  This  increases  the  rapidity  of  melting, 
and  for  good  results  the  ice  house  must  be  drained.  If  there 
is  a  concrete  floor  it  should  be  sloped  to  a  drain  in  the  center 
of  the  house.  With  the  dirt  floor,  there  should  be  a  fill  of 
cinders  or  gravel  to  a  depth  of  6  inches  or  more,  to  collect  the 
moisture.  In  any  case,  unless  the 
ground  is  very  sloping,  there  should 
be  a  4-inch  tile  drain  away  from  the 
building. 

Ventilation. — Although  the  ice 
pack  should  exclude  all  the  air 
possible,  it  is  necessary  to  have  some 
circulation  above  the  ice  to  dissi- 
pate the  heat  conducted  through 
the  roof  on  warm  days.  Openings 
between  the  rafters  just  above  the 
plate,  and  a  small  cupola  at  the 
ridge  will  afford  sufficient  ventila- 
tion. 

Space  Requirement. — The 
United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture found  the  shrinkage  of  ice  to  be  from  30  to  50  per 
cent  under  farm  conditions.  In  practice  it  is  well  to  provide 
for  a  maximum  shrinkage,  and  store  double  the  amount  of  ice 
necessary.     From  40  to  50  cubic  feet  of  space  is  required  to 


J. . 


tec   S  loc  l< 

.Drop  Siding. 
epc-4--»foddinj    Z'O'o.o. 

ir  Space. 

ofchcd    Se«ref». 


!i" 


•PJLA/f  •  ICE-HOOaEr* 

Fig.  170. — Plan  of  frame 
ice  house. 


186  ICE  HOUSES 

hold  one  ton  of  ice.  Ice  weighs  57  pounds  per  cubic  foot 
when  soUd,  but  only  about  40  pounds  per  cubic  foot  as  packed 
in  the  house.  Ten  tons  of  ice  will  require  approximately 
500  cubic  feet  of  space  for  storage.  For  the  purpose  of  insula- 
tion and  convenience  the  actual  space  in  the  house  must  be 
greater  than  the  actual  requirement  for  the  ice. 

Assuming  that  10  tons  of  ice  is  needed,  provision  should 
be  made  to  store  20  tons  to  allow  for  shrinkage  and  waste. 
One  thousand  cubic  feet  of  space  will  be  required.  The  pack 
should  be  made  as  near  the  form  of  a  cube  as  possible,  to 
reduce  the  exposure  to  the  minimum.  A  volume  will  be 
required,  then,  of  10  by  10  by  10  feet.  Allowing  2  feet  for 
insulation  around  the  entire  pack,  a  building  14  feet  square 
and  14  feet  to  the  eaves  is  needed. 

Amount  of  Ice  Required. — The  farm  requirement  varies 
so  greatly  that  no  definite  amounts  can  be  specified.  Average 
figures,  secured  principally  from  Farmers'  Bulletin  623, 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  will  aid  in  determining  the 
amount  that  should  be  stored.  The  average  household 
will  use  about  3  tons  per  season  for  miscellaneous  purposes. 
To  cool  each  pound  of  cream,  and  keep  it  at  a  temperature  of 
about  40°,  1.16  pounds  of  ice  is  required.  The  cream  from 
one  cow  can  be  cooled  with  about  500  pounds  of  ice  in  a  season, 
although  on  many  farms  it  is  customary  to  allow  1000  pounds 
per  cow.  CooUng  whole  milk  requires  IJ  to  2  tons  of  ice  per 
cow  in  a  season.  The  requirements  for  the  meats,  fruits,  and 
vegetables  can  be  determined  only  by  experience  on  the 
individual  farm.  The  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture describes  an  8  by  10-foot  refrigerator  which  requires 
about  100  tons  per  year  for  cooling.  In  all  cases  it  is  well 
to  store  more  ice  than  seems  necessary,  especially  if  it  can 
be  secured  cheaply. 

Ice-house  Construction. — Most  ice  houses  are  of  frame 
construction,  and  are  no  more  difficult  to  build  than  the  shop 
or  garage  building.  In  fact,  the  principles  of  insulation, 
ventilation,  and  drainage  are  of  more  importance  than  the  type 
of  structure.     The  best  houses  are  of  double-wall  construction, 


ICE  SUPPLY 


187 


3"  Concrete     4.4-"  Dnai 
<s^  -  CROSS  •  SECTlOi^  •  1  CEr-HOOSE-- 


Fig.  171. 


with  2  by  4-inch  or  2  by  6-inch  studding,  sided  outside,  and 
ceiled  inside  the  building.  The  wall  space  is  then  filled  with 
sawdust  or  shavings 
and  one  or  more  layers 
of  commercial  insula- 
tion are  added. 

Hollow  tile  and 
cement  blocks  afford 
good  ice-house  con- 
struction, when  insu- 
lated with  fiber  or  cork. 
In  any  case  a  light 
concrete  foundation  is 
desirable  for  frame  or 
masonry  buildings. 

A  satisfactory  ice 
house  can  be  made  by 
using  2  by  4  studding, 
and  drop  siding  on  the 
outside.  The  wall  is 
not  insulated,  but  considerable  insulation  is  placed  around  the 
ice  pack.  The  roof  is  usually  of  gable  construction,  with 
shingles  or  prepared  roofing. 

Ice  Supply. — It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  text  to  discuss 
the  source  of  ice,  and  the  cutting 
and  packing.  It  may  be  said,  how- 
ever, that  the  ice  should  be  secured 
from  a  source  free  from  contamina- 
tion. Dirt  or  vegetable  matter 
should  be  kept  out  of  the  ice.  A 
clear  flowing  stream  is  preferable  to  a  stiU  pond  as  a  source  of 
ice. 

It  is  often  possible  to  make  the  ice  from  well  or  spring  water 
by  starting  the  cakes  in  a  galvanized  iron  pan.  After  the 
shell  has  hardened,  the  center  can  be  frozen  later  while  the 
pan  is  used  to  start  another  cake.  Where  a  commercial  ice 
plant  is  convenient  it  may  be  possible  to  secure  distilled  water 


-Cross-section  of  a  frame  ice 
house. 


-jjpTAii--  OT-  ■  door- 
Fig.  172.— Detail  of  door 
for  frame  ice  house. 


188  ICE  HOUSES 

ice  cheaply  in  the  winter  season,  and  store  it  for  summer 
use. 

In  packing  care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  cakes  packed 
as  closely  together  as  possible,  and  the  least  possible  amount 
of  siuface  exposed  to  the  insulating  material.  Cracks  should 
be  filled  with  small  pieces,  to  avoid  spaces  through  which  air 
might  circulate. 

Cold  water  may  be  thrown  over  the  pile  of  ice  before  the 
insulation  is  placed  about  it.  This  water  fills  the  voids  and 
cracks  between  the  blocks  and  freezes,  making  the  pile  of 
blocks  a  solid  mass  of  ice,  thus  reducing  the  exposed  surface, 
which  tends  to  prevent  melting  of  the  ice. 


CHAPTER  XIX 


MINOR  BUILDINGS 


There  are  several  buildings  of  minor  importance  in  the 
farmstead  group  which  should  be  discussed  briefly.  Few 
farmsteads  will  contain  all  of  the  minor  buildings,  although 
every  farm  has  need  for  special  buildings  of  this  sort.  They 
include  smoke  house,  pump  house,  milk  house  or  dairy  room, 
spring  house,  scale  shelter,  seed  house,  and  shelters. 

Construction. — All  of  these  structures  are  small,  and  the 
walls  carry  hght  loads.  The  foundation  walls  need  not  extend 
more  than  12  inches  below  grade.  The  width  should  be  6 
or  8  inches.  The  foundation  should  be  carried  above  the 
grade  line  a  few  inches,  in  order  to  take  the  framing  away 
from  the  damp  ground. 

Concrete  is  the  best  foundation  material,  and  the  trench 
will  serve  as  the  form.     The  best 

method  of  preventing  heaving  due  j 

to  frost  is  to  place  steel  reinforcing 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  founda- 
tion. A  few  inches  of  concrete 
should  be  laid  in  the  bottom  ot 
the  trench,  and  the  reinforcing 
placed.  Old  steel  may  be  used 
for  this  reinforcing.  A  1 :  2^ :  5 
mixture  of  concrete  is  sufficiently 
rich. 

Smoke  House. — The  average 
farm  should  cure  much  of  the  meat 
used,  and  a  small  smoke  house  is 
convenient  and  desirable.     A  size  of  8  by  8  feet  is  sufficient. 

189 


Fig.  173. — A  smoke  house  built 
of  hollow  clay  block. 


190 


MINOR  BUILDINGS 


The  use  of  concrete,  brick,  or  hollow  tile  is  recommended, 
because  of  the  fire  risk.  A  concrete  floor  should  be  laid,  and 
the  roof  may  be  of  masonry.  A  smoke  outlet  is  placed  under 
the  cornice.  Hooks  should  be  placed  in  the  roof  at  the  time  it 
is  made.     The  door  should  be  of  heavy  plank. 

Pump  House. — For  a  deep-well  system  of  water  supply, 
or  for  a  pump  with  jack,  and  engine  or  motor,  it  is  desirable 
that  a  shelter  be  built  over  or  near  the  well.  If  the  house  is 
directly  over  the  well  there  should  be  an  opening  in  the  roof 
for  removing  the  pump.  This  structure  may  be  of  frame  or 
of  masonry  construction.     It  may  be  put  to  several  other 


^^^^^^ggm^^~  ■-  '■■ 


r 

'^:' 

«    1 

^^^ 

^^^^ 

BB 

l^fr 

1 

SSI 

Hgg^gjl 

iiiiiiiiilii|ilWw|||tt 

Sf  ji'.  jmmmK/M 

Fig.  174. — ^A  pump  house  of 
hollow  clay  block. 


Fig.  175. — A  milk  house  of 
concrete  blocks. 


uses  aside  from  a  pump  shelter,  such  as  storage  of  lawn  and 
garden  tools. 

Milk  House. — On  the  dairy  farm,  or  where  several  cows 
are  kept,  it  is  desirable  that  a  place  be  provided  to  keep  the 
dairy  equipment,  such  as  churns,  separators,  coolers,  and  like 
material  out  of  the  basement  or  kitchen.  A  small  house 
between  the  barn  and  dwelling  and  near  the  well  will  serve 
the  purpose  of  caring  for  the  dairy  products.  The  house  should 
provide  for  at  least  a  cooling  tank,  or  ice  box,  separator, 
churn,  a  stove  or  boiler,  and  the  vessels  used  in  milking. 

Spring  House. — The  spring  house  may  be  used  where 
running  water  is  available.  A  milk-coohng  tank  is  placed  in 
the  shelter.  The  floor  is  built  low,  so  the  spring  water  will 
flow  into  the  tank.     A  shop  or  storage  may  be  provided  in  a 


SCALE  HOUSE 


191 


story  above  the  tank.     The  spring  house  is  a  building  of  the 
past  century,  but  many  of  the  old  buildings  are  still  in  use. 

Scale  House. — The  scale  house  is  used  in  some  locahties 
to  protect  the  scale  platform  and  scale  beam.    The  construc- 


r -is-o'-^ — — j 


AIII.K-  MOOSE:  PUA/t- 

Fig.  176. 


Seal*    PiaifoT 


^^Bo. 


Fig.  177. 


tion  is  of  a  gable-roof  type,  with  large  doors  in  the  end,  high 
enough  to  permit  of  driving  on  the  scales  with  a  load  of  hay. 
The  scales  are  sometimes  placed  in  the  driveway  of  a  building, 
as  in  the  double  crib. 

Seed  House. — If  the  farm  seeds  are  housed  in  the  residence, 
or  in  an    outbuilding, 

it    is    usually    incon-  <I^^D 

venient,  a  harbor  for 
rats  and  mice,  and 
the  conditions  may  be 
unsuited  to  the  stor- 
age of  corn  and  grains. 
Where  high-grade 
seeds  are  produced  as 
a  part  of  the  farm 
business,  the  seed 
house  is  a  necessity. 
The  building  may  be 
small,  of  just  sufficient 
size  for  the  needs  of  the  farm.  Racks  or  hangers  should  be  built, 
for  curing  the  ear  corn.     Bins  or  boxes  are  used  to  store  the 


—"-'■ — i 

o 

M 

je  Tr  1 

Fig. 


BrVAIX-RACK      -  CB.033SECT10/1 


-  sees  •  CQRT^  •  MOOSe- 

178. — Plan  and  cross-section  of  seed 
corn  house. 


192 


MINOR  BUILDINGS 


small  seeds.     A  heater  for  drying  the  seed  may  be  installed. 

The  house  should  always  be  dry  and  well  ventilated. 

Shelters. — Farm  animals  require  shelter  during  severely 

cold  weather,  winter  rains,  and  sleet.     Shade  in  the  summer 

time  must  be  provided 
by  artificial  means,  if 
there  are  no  trees  in 
the  pasture.  An  open 
shed,  with  the  '^pen  side 
away  from  the  direction 
of  the  prevailing  winds, 
affords  a  good  winter 
shelter  for  beef  cattle, 
sheep,  and  hogs.     The 

shed  should  be  accessible  from  the  feeding  yards  and  permanent 

pasture. 

A  roof,  supported  by  posts  or  poles,  affords  a  shade  pro- 
tection in  summer.     Dairy  cows,  fat  cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs 

all  need  a  shelter  from  the  sun. 

A  useful,  cheap  shelter  often  used  is  made  by  building 


•cRoaaotcTton  -PAaToiut-SMtD. 
Fig.  179. 


Fig.  180. — A  general  stock  shed  or  shelter. 


a  framework  of  lumber  or  poles,  loosely  covered  with  poles  or 
boards.  At  threshing  time  the  straw  from  the  machine  is  blown 
over  the  framework,  and  affords  a  very  warm,  convenient, 
and  efficient  shelter.     This  shelter  may  be  renewed  each  year. 


UTILITY  HOUSE  193 

Utility  House. — On  many  farms  the  owner  desires  to 
install  modern  conveniences,  such  as  running  water,  electric 
lights,  laundry  and  power-shop  equipment,  but  the  available 
buildings  do  not  afford  a  desirable  shelter.  To  provide  a 
location  for  this  equipment  in  one  convenient  place,  a  small 
utility  house  may  be  built  near  the  dweUing.  Such  a  building 
should  be  about  10  to  16  feet  square,  depending  on  the  amount 
of  equipment  to  be  housed.  A  concrete  floor  and  masonry 
side  walls  are  permanent  and  easy  to  keep  clean,  and  are  not 
injured  by  moisture.  The  height  should  be  about  8  feet.  A 
gasoline  engine,  motor,  Hne  shaft,  and  articles  requiring  a 
small  amount  of  power,  such  as  washing  machines,  tool  grind- 
ers, etc.,  may  be  placed  in  the  utility  building. 

Combination  Buildings. — In  this  text  the  essentials,  plan, 
and  construction  of  each  building  is  discussed  separately. 
In  many  cases  it  is  possible,  and  desirable,  to  combine  two  or 
more  separate  buildings  into  one  structure.  Most  farmsteads 
have  more  small  buildings  than  are  necessary,  and  the  result 
is  a  farmstead  of  poor  appearance.  Two  buildings,  or  several 
combined,  may  reduce  the  labor  on  the  farm,  make  the  work 
more  efficient,  lower  the  cost  under  that  for  separate  buildings, 
and  make  possib  e  the  use  of  permanent  materials  and  better 
construction.  Undesirable  combinations  should  be  avoided, 
but  in  cases  where  the  equipment,  uses,  or  operations  carried 
on  in  separate  buildings  are  similar,  the  combination  may 
well  be  made.  A  few  examples  of  possible  combinations  are: 
well  house  and  milk  house;  laundry  and  milk  room;  tool 
shop  and  garage;  shop  and  machine  shed;  ice  house  and 
vegetable  storage;  and  garage  and  sleeping  room  for  farm 
help. 

Vegetable  Storage. — The  vegetable  storage  is  not  usually 
considered  as  a  building,  as  the  fruit  and  vegetables  are,  for 
the  most  part,  stored  in  cave,  basement,  or  in  pits.  The 
storage  should  be  well  ventilated,  reasonably  dry,  and  main- 
tained at  an  even  temperatm-e,  as  near  40°  F.  as  possible. 


CHAPTER  XX 


HOME  BUILT  FARM   EQUIPMENT 


There  are  a  number  of  handy  and  labor-saving  conven- 
iences for  the  farm,  that  can  be  constructed  by  the  regular 

farm  help  in  the  winter  season,  or 
on  days  when  field  work  cannot  be 
done.  No  expert  help  is  required, 
and  a  satisfactory  job  can  be  done 
by  following  the  plans  and  sugges- 
tions given  here. 

The  discussion  will  include  feed- 
ing bunks  and  racks,  feeders  and 
feedmg  floors,  tanks,  waterers, 
breeding  racks,  pens,  and  crates. 
Practically  the  only  tools  required 
are  the  usual  carpentry  tools  found 
Good,  sharp  tools,  well  cared  for,  will 
The  small  amount  of 


Fig.  181. — A  feed  rack  for 
sheep. 


in  the  farm    shcp. 

reduce  the  amount  of  labor  necessary. 

forge  work  needed  may  be  hired,  or  done  on  the  farm  forge. 


Fig.  182. — Details  of  a  feed  bunk  for  cattle:* 
194 


CATTLE-FEED  BUNKS 


195 


Cattle-feed  Bunks. — The  size  of  the  feed  bunk  ranges 
from  20  to  30  inches  high,  and  3  to  5  feet  wide,  depending  on 
whether  baby  beef  or  mature  cattle  are  fed.  The  bunk  is  made 
in  any  length  desired,  and  should  be  of  2-inch  lumber  well 


Fig.  183. — A  combination  feed  bunk  for  grain  roughage. 


braced.    The  posts  may  be  set  in  the  ground,  for  stability. 
The  bunks  are  used  to  feed  grain  and  silage. 

Feeding  Racks. — The  racks  are  somewhat  similar  in 
construction  to  the  feed  bunks.  They  are  designed  to  feed 
hay  and  other  roughage  with  a 
minimum  of  waste.  The  slats  are 
spaced  closely  enough  together  that 
the  animal  can  get  but  a  mouthful 
of  feed  at  a  time.  Racks  are  also 
made  of  poles,  in  several  types. 

Mangers. — Mangers  for  stalls, 
pens,  and  feeding  yards  are  made 
in  a  variety  of  styles,  for  different 
foods  and  feeding  conditions.  Horse 
and  dairy  barn  mangers  are  dis- 
cussed in  Part  I.     They  should  be 

susceptible  of  easy  cleaning,  permanent,  and  comfortable  for 
the  stock. 


Fig.  184. 


Roughage  rack  for 
cattle. 


•WAI.X.   r-E-r-O    RACK 

Fig,  185. — Details  of  a  feed  rack  for  a  barn 


-  Cltnr-ErTZ  ■  -P-BED  •  ALLBV  •■RACKS  - 

Fig.  186. — Feed  racks  to  face  center  alley  in  barn. 


r'"'r:^yuJ^ 


^:^r^    :^-^- 


F-EtED  •  ALLE-Y- S -RACKS  • 

Fig.  187. — ^A  center  feed  alley  manger  for  cattle. 
196 


FEEDING  FLOORS 


197 


Alow   Joists 


^••d   So«^ 


Feeding   Floors. — The   use   of   feeding   floors,    or   paved 

barnyards  is  coming  into  quite  gen 

eral  use  among  large  feeders.     The 

cleanliness  and  the  feed  saving  re- 
sulting   makes   the  liberal    use    of 

concrete  for  this  purpose  economi- 
cal.    The  floor  should  be  located 

on  a  well-drained  soil,  and  given  a 

pitch  of  |-inch  to  the  foot  to  insure 

drainage.     A  fill  of  8  to  12  inches  of 

broken   stone  or  gravel  should  be 

made,  and    compacted  before    the 

floor  is  laid.     A  one-course  floor  of 

1 :  2^ :  5  concrete  is   recommended. 

The   floor   for   hogs   should    be   4 

inches  thick,  and  6  inches  for  heavy  cattle,  and  where  wagons 

will  be  driven  over  the  floor.  A 
curb,  10  inches  wide  and  18  inches 
deep  around  the  floor,  wiU  hold  the 
edges,  prevent  their  crumbling,  and 
keep  rats  from  burrowing  under- 
neath. It  is  well  to  reinforce  the 
floor  by  embedding  in  it  a  heavy 
mesh  fence  wire.  For  hog  feeding 
the  curb  should  be  carried  a  few 
inches  above  the  surface  to  prevent 

waste  of  grain  by  rooting,  and  should  be  cast  integral  with  the 


•SCCTIO/t  -WALL-^A/tGfR.- 


Fig.  188.— Detail  of  a  wall 
manger  for  cattle. 


Fig.  189.— a  feeding  floor  for 
swine. 


Fig.  190. — ^A  paved  barnyard. 


198 


HOME  BUILT  FARM   EQUIPMENT 


floor  sections  nearest  the  edge.     The  floor  should  be  poured 
in  sections  of  about  15  feet  square,  and  expansion  joints  pro- 


*— j 15'-0- : ; — ^ 

"-#>j  Gnavg.1    Fill v'<:kW.v' 


Fig.  191. — Cross-section  of  a  combination  feeding  floor   and  wallow 

of  concrete. 

vided.     Fifteen  square  feet  of  floor  should  be  provided  for  each 
hog,  and  about  35  for  each  head  of  cattle. 

Wallows. — During     the     hot, 
dry  season  the  hogs  require  damp 
wallows  to  keep  them  comfortable 
and  healthy.     If  no  wallow  is  pro- 
vided the  damp  or  wet  places  in 
the  pasture  will  be  used  by  the 
hogs  as  a  wallow,  with  consequent 
dirt,    and   unsanitary    conditions. 
A    concrete    wallow,    with    fresh 
water  suppHed   constantly,  or  at 
least  once  a    day,   affords    ideal 
conditions.     With  some  care  the  feeding  floor,  with  a  high 
curb,  may  serve  as  a  wallow  in  warm  weather,  if  supply  pipe 
and  drain  are  provided.     The  wallow  should  have  a  sloping 


Fig.  192. — A  mud  wallow  from 
a  leaking  tank. 


Fig.  193. — A  shaded  concrete  hog  wallow. 


SELF  FEEDERS 


199 


floor,  and  have  water  to  a  depth  ranging  from  4  to  12  inches. 
An  overflow  pipe  connecting  with  a  tile  drain  serves  as  an 
outlet.    The  outlet  or  overflow  should  empty  into  a  sump  or 


-C"ROSSSECTIOri    IOWA- 

Fig.  194. 

well  outside  the  wallow,  to  settle  out  the  sediment  before  the 
waste  enters  the  tile.  The  supply  may  be  from  a  spring, 
stream,  or  from  the  farm  water  supply. 

Self   Feeders. — The   self   feeder,    or   free-choice   method, 


Fig.  195.— Self  feeder  in  use.  Fi(i,.196.— An  alfalfa  rack  for  swine. 

by  which  the  hog  selects  his  own  rations  from  several  feeds, 
is  advocated  by  a  great  many  hog  men.  It  has  been  shown 
that  self-fed  hogs  make  the  quickest  and  most  economical 


200 


HOME  BUILT  FARM  EQUIPMENT 


gains.     The  labor  saving  makes  the  feeder  a  valuable  piece 
of  equipment. 

The  feeder  consists  of  a  bin  which  may  be  divided  into 


Fig.  197. — A  niuvabie  self  ieeder 
for  cattle. 


Fig  198. — A  sheltered  self  feeder 
for  cattle. 


sections  to  hold  one  or  more  kinds  of  feed.     A  narrow,  adjust- 
able opening  at  the  bottom  allows  the  feed  to  flow  by  gravity 
to  the  trough.     The  feeder  should  be  low  and  rather  broad, 
for     stability.       An     inverted, 
V-shaped     trough    under    the 
opening    from    the    bin,  called 
an  accelerator,   tends    to  push 
the    feed    to  the   front  of  the 
trough.      The    trough     should 
be  made  tight,  and  placed  well 
under    the    bin  for  protection. 
Guards    or    covers    are   placed 
over     the      trough     in     some 
feeders.    The  feeders  are  made 


Fig.  199. — A  stock  water 
tank. 


Fig.  200. — A  farm  water  storage 
tank^. 


TANKS 


201 


for  small  grain,  mixed  feeds  and  ear  corn.  Several  com- 
partments may  be  made  in  one  feeder. 

Larger,  high  feeders  on  the  same  principle  are  made  for 
cattle.  The  trough  is  made  30  inches  from  the  floor.  Forage 
racks  to  hold  several  days'  feed  may  also  be  used.  These, 
together  with  waterers,  will  materially  reduce  the  feeding  work 
in  the  busy  season. 

Tanks. — The  best  water  tanks  for  stock  are  made  from 
concrete,  both  the  round  and  rectangular  shapes  are  used,  the 
latter  being  preferable.  The  location  for  the  tank  should 
be  well  drained.     A  good  foundation  below  the  grade  should 


TA/1 K  •  CO/5TII.OL* 


Fig.  201. — An  underground  float  control  for  a  water  tank. 

be  installed,  to  prevent  settling.  The  pipes  and  drain  should 
be  laid  first. 

The  mixture  of  concrete  for  the  tank  should  be  1 :  2 :  4,  of  a 
quaky  consistency,  spaded  carefully  to  get  a  smooth  surface 
next  to  the  forms.  When  the  concrete  has  set,  the  forms  are 
removed  and  a  wash  given,  of  pure  cement  and  water,  mixed 
to  a  creamy  consistency.  Woven  wire,  well  bedded  in  the  con- 
crete, and  doubled  around  the  corners,  is  used  for  reinforcing. 

The  sides  of  the  tank  should  flare  from  10  inches  thick  at 
the  bottom  to  5  inches  at  the  top  for  tanks  2  feet  or  more  in 
depth.  This  will  prevent  bursting  from  freezing,  and  gives 
the  greatest  amount  of  material  at  the  bottom  of  the  tank. 
A  concrete  floor  for  several  feet  around  the  tank  is  desirable. 


202 


HOME  BUILT  FARM  EQUIPMENT 


Prom    TanW 

Fig.  202. — A  concrete  hog 
waterer. 


The  tanks  may  be  covered  with  a  wood  cover,  bolted  to  the 
sides,  or  by  concrete  slabs  or  a  concrete  dome.  The  concrete 
cover  is  heavily  reinforced,  using  several  steel  rods  in  addition 
to  the  wire.  Holes  are  made  for  the  stock  to  drink  through. 
Hog  Waterer. — A  hog  waterer  of  concrete,  with  a  float 
chamber  under  the  ground  level,  is 
convenient,  easy  to  make,  and  will 
serve  the  purpose  well.  Heavy 
barrels  may  be  used  in  place  of  the 
concrete,  if  desired.  The  plan  shows 
how  the  waterer  may  be  made. 
Protection  in  cold  weather  will  re- 
duce the  chance  of  freezing. 

The  float  control  is  used  to  keep 
the  water  in  the  drinking  compart- 
ment at  a  constant  level,  when  the 
source  of  the  supply  is  at  a  higher  level.  The  float  is  a 
tight  chamber  which  remains  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  and 
regulates  an  inlet  valve, 
the  level  in  the  float 
chamber  remaining  the 
same  as  in  the  stock 
tank.  A  float  may  be 
placed  in  the  tank,  or 
at  some  distance  away, 
and  possibly  under- 
ground for  protection. 

Hog-breeding  Crate. 
— The  use  of  the  breed- 
ing crate  makes  possible 
the  mating  of  animals 
which  vary  greatly  in 
age,  size,  and  condition.  The  plan  shown  has  all  the  essentials 
of  the  more  expensive  commercial  crates.  The  length  is 
adjusted  by  dropping  a  gate  through  the  top  frame.  The  side 
adjustment  is  controlled  by  a  lever  arm  at  each  side  which 
moves  the  foot  rest  against  the  animal.     The  height  is  also 


Fig.  203. 


CATTLE  BREEDING  RACK 


203 


adjusted  by  a  lever.     The  levers  lock  similar  to  the  wagon- 
brake  lever. 

Cattle  Breeding  Rack. — The  breeding  rack  serves  the  same 
purpose  in  cattle  breeding  as  the  swine  crate  for  hogs,  and 


•CATTLE  -BREEDIAQ    CRATS; 


Fig.  204. — Breeding  rack  for  cattle. 

should  be  built  to  withstand  hard  usage.  It  may  be  used  also 
for  dehorning,  hoof  trimming,  etc.,  if  it  is  firmly  anchored. 
Two-inch  lumber  should  be  used  throughout.  The  rack  may 
be  placed  on  skids,  to  make  it  movable,  or  the  posts  can  be 
set  in  the  ground. 

Comer  Post. — To  secure  a  strong  fence,  it  is  necessary 
that  the  corner  posts  be  strong,  well  braced,  and  permanent. 


Fig.  205. — A  concrete  cor- 
nerpost. 


Fig.  206.— a  concrete  manure  storage 
pit. 


204 


HOME  BUILT  FARM  EQUIPMENT 


The  factor  of  appearance  should  also  be  considered.  Con- 
crete meets  the  requirements  for  a  good  corner  post.  A  rich 
concrete  is  used,  and  the  post  reinforced  with  8  half -inch 
twisted  square  steel  bars,  which  are  covered  by  at  least  f  inch 
of  concrete.  The  post  should  have  iron  pipe  extending  through 
in  Une  with  the  fence,  to  receive  the  wire.  The  size  of  the 
post  will  depend  on  the  height  of  the  fence  and  the  number  of 
wires.  It  is  best  to  cast  the  post  in  place,  with  braces,  and 
a  heavy  mass  of  concrete  below  the  ground  line. 

Manure  Pit. — A  concrete  pit  for  the  storage  of  manure 
conserves  the  fertility,  prevents  leaching,  and  lessens  the 
trouble  from  flies.  The  storage  in  a  pit  makes  a  more  sanitary 
farmstead.  A  concrete  pit,  with  an  inclined  driveway,  for 
easy  entrance  with  a  spreader,  is  recommended.  A  roof  over 
the  pit,  screened  sides,  and  litter-carrying  machinery  from 
the  barn  affords  an  ideal  condition  for  handhng  the  manure. 

Scale  Pens. — The  scale  platform  should  have  a  pen,  or 
inclosure,  for  weighing  stock.  It  is  desirable  that  the  inclosure 
be  adjusted  to  swing  out  of  the  way  for  a  load  of  hay  or  grain. 
In  this  plan  the  end  gates  hang  on  the  pen  sides,  and  the  sides 
are  hinged  to  the  platform,  to  swing  outward.  Cross  pieces 
at  the  ends  hold  the  sides  together  when  the  pens  are  in  use. 

Shipping  Crate. — For  express  shipment  of  stock,  a   secure 


Scam  "BoK 


Fig.  207. — ^A  scale  pen  with  folding  side. 


'  SHIPPirfGCRATe:lH3R-SWI/«r- 

Fig.  208. 


CATTLE  STOCKS 


205 


light-weight,  comfortable  crate  is  desired.  A  light,  strong, 
wood  is  used,  and  the  crate  securely  nailed.  The  floor  should 
be  tight,  and  the  sides  slatted.  The  crate  is  fitted  to  the 
animal  to  some  extent,  to  prevent  injury  in  transit. 

Cattle  Stocks. — The  cattle  stocks  will  find  a  wide  use  for 

ok  pin,  atub  Hnon 
Vz"  Ti*  bolt 
A-'xA'  Brace 
-*|— 6*x  6'x  6-6"  po*t 

^piWc  to  aopperf  •winj 
•4-"  Pipe  roller,  ij^"  pipe 
inaide 

s/n."  Hoica  for  turning 
rielea   for   tica. 

'a'x&"A\Z  tift  •»«» 
Bolt. 
Z"  T-loor 
&V6>7iO*  Sills. 
oncrctc   baeo. 


Fig.  209.— Cattle  stocks. 


safe  and  convenient  handling  of  animals  for  dehorning, 
veterinary  treatment  of  any  sort. 
The  stocks  should  be  located  at 
a  convenient  point  in  the  yards. 
Strong  construction  is  needed,  mor- 
tise and  tenon  joints,  bolted,  being 
preferred  and  a  masonry  base  should 
be  built. 

Ringing  Crate. — The  ringing  crate 
is  a  device  for  holding  swine  for  the 
operation  of  ringing.  It  is  a  strongly 
built  crate  with  stanchion  in  one 
end    and    gate    or    drop    panel    in  Fig.  210. 


or 


•HOG-WI/tGinQ-CRATBr- 


206 


HOME  BUILT  FARM  EQUIPMENT 


opposite  end.  It  may  be  placed  in  hog  run  so  the  animals 
may  be  rung  with  greatest  ease  as  they  are  driven  through 
individually. 

Dipping  Vat. — The  dipping  vat  is  a  container  for  holding 


Fig.  211. — Dipping  tank  for  stock. 


dip  in  which  animals  may  be  inmiersed  for  infection,  ticks, 
and  other  pest  insects.  It  is  built  of  concrete  and  placed  in  an 
animal  run  for  convenience.     Drainage  should  be  provided. 


CHAPTER  XXI 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  FARM  HOUSE 


Sntrance 


^osao^e 


The  development  of  the  farm  house  is  closely  associated 
with  the  progress  of  civiUzation,  and  dates  back  many- 
centuries.  The  factors  of  cUmate,  protection,  poverty  and 
riches,  and  the  wandering  instinct  all  have  influenced  the 
house  at  different  times.  After  food,  man's  next  need  was  for 
a  shelter. 

The  nomadic  tribes  used  hmbs  of  trees,  or  a  thicket  of 

bushes    for    their    early    shelters.  

Later  they  used  skins  of  animals, 
in  the  form  of  tents.  Tribes  limited 
to  certain  areas  made  more  per- 
manent shelters.  Caves  were  cut 
in  the  rocks,  houses  were  made 
from  timbers,  and  in  the  Nile  River 
valley  mud  huts  were  built.  The 
earhest  house  plan  on  record  is 
the  primitive  Egyptian  house,  of 
timbers. 

The  elaborate  palaces  of  the  Persian  peoples,  the  pyramids 
of  Egypt,  the  classic  architecture  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
and  the  church  and  pubUc  building  architecture  of  Europe 
are  the  outstanding  features  of  the  history  of  Architecture. 
Their  influence  on  the  American  farm  house,  while  not  directly 
apparent,  has  been  important.  The  best  architects  of  farm 
homes  have  learned  the  principles  of  architecture  of  the  ages, 
and  apply  the  beauty,  symmetry,  and  design  of  parts  to  the 
modern  home.  Some  parts  of  the  structure,  such  as  the 
columns,  follow  directly  the  proportions  and  design  of  the 
Greek  and  Roman  columns. 

207 


•  ?>iiIAllTlVB 'liOOSS  •  PL  Art  • 
Fig.  212. 


208 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  FARM  HOUSE 


In  America  the  development  has  been  through  the  caves 
of  the  cUff  dwellers,  the  ''  dobe  "  houses  of  the  Southwest, 
and  the  wigwam  of  the  Indian,  to  the  pioneer  home,   the 


Fig.  213. — A  log  cabin. 

frame    shack,    and    the    modern,    convenient,    well-equipped 
home  of  to-day. 

The  two  types  of  farm  houses  most  typical  of  pioneer 


Fig.  214. — A  large  farm  house  in  the  middle  west. 

life  were  the  log  cabin  and  the  sod  house  of  the  prairie.  The 
log  cabin  had  a  huge  fireplace,  which  furnished  heat  for 
cooking,  warmth,  ventilation,  and  oftentimes  light  at  night. 
The  heavy  logs,  with  the  crevices  filled  with  clay,  afforded  a 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  FARM  HOUSE 


209 


warm,  comfortable  shelter  and  protection  from  wandering 
enemies.  The  needs  of  the  pioneers  were  few,  and  the  log 
cabin  supplied  them.  The  rough  logs,  wooded  landscape, 
and  the  cUmbing  vines  afforded  a  picturesque  beauty  and 
comfort  that  is  often  lacking  in  the  modern  house.  The  sod 
house  was  made  from  the  tough  sods  cut  from  the  prairie,  for 
timber  was  not  available,  the  wooden  door  and  frame  being 
the  only  wood  parts  in  many  cases.     The  house  was  made  low, 


Fig.  215. — A  farm  house  among  trees,  Central  Iowa. 


often  partly  underground,  so  the  high  winds  of  the  plains 
did  not  harm  them.  The  inside  of  the  house  was  plastered, 
and  the  sod  shanty  also  afforded  a  shelter  that  fulfilled  the 
needs. 

The  architectural  style  of  the  modern  home  cannot  be 
defined.  It  may  be  Colonial,  Dutch  colonial.  Mission,  or 
bungalow.  In  many  cases  it  combines  two  or  more  styles, 
but  more  often  the  house  has  no  defined  style.  If  the  house 
is  simple  in  style  plain,  and  substantial,  and  fits  into  the  sur- 
roundings, it  is  likely  to  be  suitable. 


210  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  FARM  HOUSE 

The  '^  gingerbread  "  effect  of  years  ago,  and  the  towers, 
spires,  and  cupolas  are  gone  from  the  house.  The  narrow 
porches,  slender  columns,  high  windows,  and  dark  rooms 
have  no  place  in  the  farm  house  built  for  beauty  and  comfort. 

The  ideal  farm  home  is  hard  to  find.  The  rapid  settUng 
of  the  country,  the  low  prices  for  products,  and  the  low 
price  of  land  has  retarded  the  development  of  the  ideal  type  of 
house.  Modern  conveniences,  care  in  planning,  provision 
for  comforts,  and  efficiency  in  arrangement  are  the  things  that 
will  aid  in  making  the  farm  home  an  ideal  place  in  which  to 
live.  The  incorporation  of  the  owner's  suggestions  in  the 
architects'  drawings  should  result  in  a  convenient  dweUing. 


'J^- 


CHAPTER  XXII 
PLANNING  THE  FARM  HOUSE 

The  farm  house  is  the  most  important  building  in  the 
farmstead  group,  and  its  planning  is  often  the  most  neglected. 
The  house  is  a  shelter  for  the  child  at  birth,  a  protection  and 
refuge  during  growth  and  maturity,  and  a  comfort  to  the  old 
man  in  his  declining  years.  The  farm  home  is  the  woman's 
domain,  where  she  spends  most  of  her  time,  in  the  care  of  the 
family,  in  the  planning  and  serving  of  the  meals  and  pro- 
viding for  recreation,  rest,  and  sleep.  The  house  is  the  busi- 
ness center  of  the  farm;  there  the  office  is  installed,  wherein 
the  business  records  are  kept,  and  the  business  of  selling 
and  buying  is  largely  planned  there.  Often  the  help  is  provided 
for,  and  sleeping  rooms,  wash  rooms,  and  recreation  rooms 
for  the  farm  help  maintained. 

Most  certainly  the  many  problems  of  the  home  demand 
that  the  house  plan  be  carefully  considered.  Every  house 
is  a  separate  problem,  and  requires  separate  treatment. 
There  are  very  few  plans  which  embody  all  of  the  features 
desired  in  the  home,  because  the  number  in  the  family,  the 
size  of  the  farm,  the  amount  of  money  available,  the  value 
of  the  farm,  and  the  taste  of  the  owner  all  affect  the  planning. 

The  architect  is  able  to  plan  a  house  correctly,  and  avoid  the 
mistakes  which  are  sure  to  come  from  amateur  planning. 
Yet  the  architect  is  often  unfamiliar  with  the  problems  of  the 
farm,  and  needs  consultation  with  the  farm  owner.  The 
ideal  method  of  planning  the  farm  home  is  by  the  co-operation 
of  the  owner,  the  architect,  and  the  agricultural  engineer,  for 
through  their  combined  efforts  the  problems  affecting  the 
design  may  all  be  met. 

211 


212 


PLANNING  THE  FARM  HOUSE 


Since    each    house    plan    presents  .special    problems,    no 
attempt  will  be  made  here  to  designate  each  feature  definitely, 

but  rather,  suggestions 
will  be  offered  which 
will  aid  in  the  correct 
planning,  with  as  many 
desirable  features  em- 
bodied as  possible. 

Parts  of  the  Fann 
Home. — The  discussion 
of  the  farm  home  may 
be  made  under  the 
headings  of  the  parts 
for  the  preparation  and 
serving  of  food,  recrea- 
t  i  o  n,  administration, 
sanitation,  service,  and 
for  sleep  and  rest. 


POTSOH 


•"p-l'RST'PL.OOR-PLArf-  P-A-RMHOOSEr- 

Fig.  216. 


Part  for  Preparation 
AND  Serving  of  Food 

This  section  of  the 
house  should  include 
the   kitchen,    dining 


room,  pantry,  and  the 
storage  place  for  fruits  and  vegetables. 

Kitchen. — A  kitchen  11  by  13  feet  has  been  found  to  be 
of  good  practical  size  for  the  farm.  This  size  permits  of  the 
necessary  fixtures,  and  room  for  two  persons  to  work,  yet  is 
not  so  large  as  to  cause  unnecessary  steps. 

The  kitchen  should  be  a  light,  clean  room,  with  windows 
on  two  sides,  for  light  and  ventilation.  A  location  on  a  side 
of  the  house  to  overlook  the  barns  and  service  yard  is  desirable. 
The  range,  sink,  cupboard,  and  work  table  are  the  most 
important  furnishings.  The  range  should  be  placed  near  the 
flue,  and  opposite  the  windows,  in  order  that  it  will  be  well 
lighted   in   the   daytime.     The   sink   should,    if   possible,  -  be 


PART  FOR  PREPARATION  AND  SERVING  OF  FOOD    213 


placed  against  an  inside  wall,  to  protect  the  plumbing  from 
freezing  in  cold  weather.  The  work  table  should  be  placed 
under  the  windows,  so  that  it  is  well  lighted.  The  windows 
should  be  made  high,  with  the  bottom  of  the  window  3  feet 
from  the  floor.  The  inclosed,  built-in  cupboard  and  refrig- 
erator are  desirable  furnishings  for  the  well-equipped  kitchen. 
The  housewife  spends  many  hours  each  day  in  the  kitchen, 
and  convenience  and  comfort  are  very  important. 

The  kitchen  should  connect  directly  with  a  screened,  or 
glassed-in  service  porch,  and  with  the  dining  room,  or  pantry. 
A  direct  entrance  from 
the  kitchen  to  the  base- 
ment is  desirable. 

Dining  Room. — The 
dining  room  should  be 
ample  in  size  for  serving 
the  large  groups  often 
necessary  on  the  farm  at 
threshing  or  silo-filling 
time.  Thirteen  by  15 
feet  or  more  is  correct. 
The  room  should  be  well 
lighted,  and  a  southern 
exposure  is  desirable. 
Built-in  features  may 
include  buffet,  china 
closet,  and  window  seat. 
In  many  cases  the  built- 
in  equipment  is  omitted 
from  the  dining  room. 
The  dining  room  should 
be  symmetrical  with 
respect  to  lines  passing 
through  the  center  of  the  room,  as  this  plan  lends  itself  to  the 
best  arrangement  of  the  furniture  and  openings.  The  room 
is  connected  to  the  pantry  or  kitchen  by  a  double  swinging 
door,  hinged  on  the  side  nearest  the  middle  of  the  room. 


Fig.  217. 


214  PLANNING  THE  FARM  HOUSE 

The  dining  room  usually  connects  to  the  living  room  by- 
means  of  cased  opening,  colonnade,  sliding  doors,  or  French 
doors.     The  closed  opening  is  the  more  desirable. 

Pantry. — The  larger  farm  houses  often  provide  a  pantry 
between  the  kitchen  and  dining  room.  It  may  contain  the 
sink  and  cupboards.  The  pantry  is  an  aid  in  serving  when 
there  is  plenty  of  help  available  and  many  people  to  serve. 
A  service  room,  or  store  room,  may  be  built  in  connection 
with  the  kitchen,  not  as  a  serving  room,  but  rather  as  a  store 
room  for  the  large  amount  of  provisions  to  be  kept  in  the 
home. 

Fruit  and  Vegetable  Storage. — In  a  majority  of  cases  the 
fruit  and  vegetable  storage  is  a  part  of  the  basement.  The 
room  should  be  kept  dark  and  cool,  and  a  northern  exposure 
is  desirable.  Heating  pipes  in  the  storage  room  should  be 
avoided,  if  possible,  but  if  necessary,  they  should  be  well 
insulated.  This  room  should  be  as  far  from  the  furnace 
room  as  possible. 

Part  for  Recreation 

The  part  of  the  house  set  aside  for  recreation  consists 
of  living  room,  or  parlor,  living  porch,  and  library,  or  music 
room. 

Living  Room. — The  living  room  should  be  large,  comfort- 
able, cheerful,  and  homelike.  It  is  a  place  where  the  family 
may  gather  for  enjoyment  and  good  cheer.  The  old-fashioned 
parlor,  with  darkened  windows  and  memories  of  the  past 
is  obsolete.  The  living  room  should  be  rectangular  in  shape 
and  roomy.  A  room  14  by  20  is  a  convenient  size,  and  is  well 
adapted  to  the  furniture,  although  the  size  may  be  varied 
greatly  to  meet  conditions.  A  fireplace  is  a  valuable  addition 
to  the  living  room.  The  room  should  have  an  outside  door 
to  the  porch  or  terrace,  and  a  connecting  door  to  the  hall 
or  stairway. 

Living  Porch. — The  modern  porch  should  be  planned  for 
all  the  year  use.  A  porch  8  feet  or  more  wide,  and  of  a  length 
practically  across  the  front  of  the  house  is  desirable.     Screens 


PART  FOR  ADMINISTRATION 


215 


KITCHISA     - 


PO-R.OM 


should  be  provided  for  the  summer,  and  sash  for  winter  use. 
The    porch   should    be 
carefully    planned,    to 
add  to  the  appearance 
and  value  of  the  house. 

The  sun-parlor,  or 
solarium,  is  an  inclosed 
porch,  or  a  room  with 
the  walls  almost  en- 
tirely of  glass.  Heat  is 
provided,  and  the  sun 
room  is  valuable  for 
house  plants,  for  "  sun- 
ning "  and  if  connected 
to  the  dining  room,  it 
affords  a  desirable  din- 
ing porch. 

Music  Room,  or 
Library. — The  library, 
or  music  room,  or  both, 
should  be  placed  near 

the  living  room,  and  in  a  quiet  part  of  the  house.  Plenty  of 
clear  wall  space  should  be  provided  for  cases  and  instru- 
ments, and  comfort  should  be  provided  in  every  way  possible. 

Part  for  Administration 

Farm  Office. — The  farm  house  is  the  business  center  of 
the  farm,  in  most  cases,  and  provision  should  be  made  to  care 
for  the  business  records  and  correspondence.  The  room 
should  be  accessible  from  the  hall  or  stairs,  away  from  the  rou- 
tine work  of  the  house,  and  have  filing  cases,  typewriter, 
book  shelves,  and  desk,  and  should  be  furnished  as  a  reception 
room  for  business  callers.  It  is  desirable  that  the  room  be 
located  to  afford  a  view  of  the  barns  and  fields  from  the 
windows. 


r-iRST  r-L.o 


OR    Pl-AV^ 


Fig.  218. 


-First-floor  plan,  house  for  village. 
See  Figs.  220  and  221. 


216  PLANNING  THE  FARM  HOUSE 

Part  for  Sanitation 

The  features  included  under  the  head  of  sanitation  are 
the  bathroom,  toilet,  washroom,  and  laundry. 

Bathroom. — The  bathroom  should  be  5  by  8  feet  or  larger, 
with  an  outside  window  to  furnish  light  and  ventilation. 
Only  high-grade  fixtures  should  be  installed,  with  simplicity 
and  efficiency  in  the  plumbing.  The  bathroom  may  be  placed 
on  either  the  first  or  second  floor;  if  on  the  second  floor,  there 
should  be  a  toilet  and  lavatory  on  the  first  floor  for  convenience. 

Toilet. — A  toilet  room,  with  closet  and  lavatory,  should 
be  provided,  if  possible,  and  on  the  floor  not  provided  with  a 
bathroom.  With  care  in  planning,  the  same  soil  stack  can 
be  used  as  for  the  bathroom. 

Washroom. — The  washroom  is  a  desirable  convenience, 
especially  if  there  is  farm  help  to  care  for.  A  location  near 
the  rear  porch  or  in  the  basement  is  satisfactory.  The  plan 
should  provide  lockers,  toilet,  shower  bath,  and  lavatory. 
The  washroom  with  lockers  makes  it  possible  for  the  men  to 
clean  up  and  remove  work  coats,  or  change  clothing,  and 
avoid  carrying  dirt  or  stable  odors  into  the  living  rooms. 
The  washroom  for  help  is  considered  almost  as  important  as 
the  bathroom  in  the  large  farmhome. 

Latmdry. — The  modern  laundry  may  be  made  sanitary 
and  convenient,  and  the  work  lightened  greatly  over  old 
methods  of  handling  the  wash.  The  laundry  should  be 
located  in  the  basement,  and  the  room  provided  with  three 
or  more  windows.  Stationary  tubs,  hot-  and  cold-water 
connections,  and  a  laundry  stove  are  necessary  equipment. 
A  concrete  floor,  with  drain,  is  needed.  The  completely 
equipped  laundry  is  fitted  with  power  washer,  fixed  tubs, 
ironing  machine,  and  electric  flatiron. 

Part  for  Sleep  and  Rest 

Bedrooms. — The  bedrooms  should  have  cross  ventilation, 
and  two  or  more  windows  to  each  room.  The  plan  should 
provide  wall   space  for   two  possible   locations   for  the  beds. 


PART  FOR  SERVICE 


217 


A  size  of  10  by  12  to  12  by  13  foot  is  sufficient  for  the  average 
bedroom.  A  spacious  closet  should  be  provided  for  each  bed- 
room. The  house  for 
the  average  farm  should 
have  three  bedrooms. 

Dormitory. — For  the 
care  of  help  in  the 
busy  season  of  the  year, 
it  is  necessary  on  many 
farms  to  provide  a  dor- 
mitory, or  sleeping 
quarters  for  several 
men.  A  room  in  the 
third  story,  or  a  large 
bedroom,  may  be  fitted 
with  several  beds  for 
this  purpose.  This  room 
should  be  provided  with 
several  windows,  and 
good  air  circulation.  In 
some  cases  the  dormi- 
tory for  the  men  is 
placed  in  a  sales  pa- 
vilion, 
or  in 
house. 


over   a    garage, 
a  separate  bunk 


Fici.  219. 


Sleeping  Porch. — The  sleeping  porch  may  be  provided  for 
by  carrying  the  rear  porch,  sun  parlor,  or  living  porch  to  the 
full  two-story  height.  The  room  should  be  wide  enough  for 
a  clear  passage  about  the  beds,  and  should  be  screened  in 
summer;  it  is  usually  ''  sashed  in  "  for  winter  use. 

Part  for  Service 

Stairs. — The  stairs  should  be  from  3  to  3 J  feet  wide,  and 
should  usually  be  provided  with  a  landing,  to  break  the 
continuous  flight  from  floor  to  floor.  They  should  be  designed 
for  easy  ascent,  as  discussed  in  the  following  chapter.    Attic 


218 


PLANNING  THE  FARM  HOUSE 


stairs  may  be  somewhat  steeper  and  narrower  than  the  main 
stairs.  Basement  stairs  should  be  wide,  since  much  material 
will  be  carried  to  and  from  the  basement.  All  stairs  should 
be  provided  with  a  hand  rail,  and  attention  given  to  the  safety 

and  comfort  of  those 
using  them.  The  head- 
room should  be  at  least 


"ROOT- 


6 J  feet. 

Halls. — A  main  hall 
through  the  house  is 
often  found,  and  is  a 
convenience  in  passing 
to  the  different  rooms. 
Doors  should  connect 
rooms  direct  to  the 
hall.  For  stairs,  the 
hall  should  be  6  to  7 
feet  wide  for  a  two-run 
stair.  The  small  hall 
or  corridor  at  the  head 
of  the  stairs  should  be 
3  feet  wide,  and  not 
longer  than  necessary 
to  connect  with  the  up- 
stairs rooms.  A  reception  hall  at  the  front  of  the  house  is  some- 
times provided.  The  hall  connects  with  the  living  room 
and  the  main  entrance,  and  contains  the  stairway.  In  many 
cases  the  entrance  haU  is  not  necessary,  and  is  simply  a  waste 
of  space.  A  large  number  of  house  plans  now  omit  the 
reception  hall. 

Closets. — Ample  closet  space  is  desirable  in  every  house, 
especially  in  connection  with  the  sleeping  rooms  and  bath. 
Closets  should  be  2  feet  6  inches  deep,  and  as  long  as  possible, 
and  have  a  door,  shelves,  and  hooks.  In  a  few  cases  it  is 
possible  to  place  a  small  window  in  the  closet. 

Basement. — The  modern  home  requires  a  basement  for 
the  laundry,  washroom,  heating  plant,  storage,  and  utilities. 


' SeC<XnD-"ri-00-R-Pl.A/S  •  "PA-R;^ •  HOOSE:- 

Fig.  220. — Second-floor  plan  of  house 
shown  in  Fig.  221. 


PART  FOR  SERVICE 


219 


The  basement  should  be  excavated  under  the  entire  house, 
to  a  depth  of  5  feet  below  grade,  and  7  feet  of  headroom 
should  be  provided.  Masonry  walls  and  a  smooth  cement 
floor  are  essential.  The  floor  should  be  given  a  slope,  for 
drainage,  and  a  floor  drain  provided.  All  basement  rooms 
should  have  one  or  more  windows.  Partitions  are  placed 
to  act  as  bearing  walls  for  the  partitions  on  the  main  floor, 
and  divide  the  basement  space.  A  fuel  room  in  the  farm- 
house basement  provides  the  space  to  store  a  winter  supply 
of  fuel. 

Grouping  of  Parts. — The  square  or  rectangular  house,  with 
plain  walls,  is  the  most  economical  for  space  and  materials. 
The  preference  of  the  owner  will  determine  the  exact  size 
and  shape,  however.  Since  the  house  is  a  special  problem, 
no  further  suggestions  will  be  offered  here,  as  to  arrangement, 
except  that  the  various  parts  should  be  planned  together,  for 
convenience,  efficiency,  and  beauty. 

Suggestions  in  Planning  the  House. — It  should  be  the 
duty  and  pleasure  of 
the  entire  farm  family 
to  take  part  in  the 
planning  of  the  new 
home.  The  foflowing 
outhne  of  the  method 
of  planning  will  be  of 
help.  The  chapter  on 
Plan  Drawing  should 
be  studied  in  this  con- 
nection. 

1.  Select    location. 

2.  Determine  the 
number  of  rooms  de- 
sired,   for  present  and    future    needs,    and   select   roof    shape. 

3.  Decide  upon  shape  and  possible  size. 

4.  Locate  kitchen  with  exposure  and  view  desired. 

5.  Locate    dining    room    and    stairs,    with    reference    to 
the  kitchen. 


Fig.  221. — House  in  small  village. 
Figs.  218  and  220. 


See 


220  PLANNING  THE  FARM  HOUSE 

6.  Plan  living  room  with  reference  to  dining  room  and 
hall. 

7.  UtiUze  remaining  space  for  office,  bedrooms,  etc. 

8.  Decide  upon  size  of  rooms,  and  plan  for  economy  of 
materials. 

9.  Plan  doorways,  leaving  space  for  furniture. 

10.  Locate  windows,  selecting  stock  sizes. 

11.  Plan  porches. 

12.  Plan  arrangement  of  second  floor,   with  reference  to 
stairs,  hall,  and  bearing  walls. 

13.  Plan  basement,  using  partitions  as  bearing  walls  for 
first  floor. 

14.  Study  front  and  side  elevation  views  for  proportion, 
mass,  shape,  and  symmetry. 

15.  Group  windows  in  elevation  for  appearance. 

16.  Change  windows  in  plan  to  fit  elevation. 

17.  Make  plans  in  pencil,  to  scale,  with  dimensions. 

18.  Trace  plans  and  elevations. 

19.  Locate  plumbing,  lighting,  and  heating  fixtures. 

20.  Draw  details  of  construction  and  complete  drawings. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
FARM-HOUSE   CONSTRUCTION 

The  construction  work  on  the  farm  house  should  be  done 
by  experienced  carpenters  and  masons.  The  student  and 
owner  should,  however,  be  famiUar  with  the  best  methods 
and  practices  of  construction,  in  order  that  they  may  properly 
design  and  superintend  the  erection  of  the  house.  The  work 
is  more  complicated  than  the  construction  of  barns  and  out- 
buildings, and  more  care  is  necessary  to  secure  good  workman- 
ship on  the  finish  and  trim. 

T3rpes  of  Construction. — Houses  may  be  of  wood  or 
masonry  construction.  The  frame  building  may  be  full  frame, 
half  frame,  or  balloon  frame.  Most  houses  of  the  present 
day  use  the  balloon  frame  entirely,  when  built  of  wood. 
Masonry  construction  may  be  brick,  tile,  stone,  or  concrete. 
The  brick  veneer  and  stucco  houses  are  usually  framed  with 
wood,  and  the  permanent  covering  placed  over  the  frame. 

Since  the  frame  house  is  the  most  common  at  the  present 
time,  this  type  will  be  discussed  quite  fully  in  the  following 
pages.  The  masonry  houses,  as  a  rule,  use  the  same  methods 
of  inside  construction,  millwork,  and  finish. 

Foundation  and  Footings. — The  foundation  wall  is  made  of 
masonry,  such  as  brick,  stone,  hollow  tile,  or  concrete.  The 
thickness  of  the  wall  depends  on  the  materials  used,  ranging 
from  8  inches  for  the  tile  and  concrete,  to  13  for  brick,  and  16 
inches  or  more  for  stone.  The  wall  should  extend  4  to  5  feet 
below  grade,  and  2  to  3  feet  above  grade  for  a  7-foot  base- 
ment ;  above  grade  it  should  be  finished  with  a  brick  or 
stucco  exterior,  or  by  pointing  up  the  cement  or  tile  blocks. 

The  lower  part  of  the  wall  should  rest  on  a  spread  footing 

221 


222 


FARM-HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 


rShinqlc* 


Rafter 


of  concrete  to  prevent  settlement.  The  footing  should  be 
about  6  or  8  inches  thick  for  the  average  wall,  and  14  to  16 
wide.  The  condition  of  the  soil  will  determine  the  exact 
size.  In  a  wet  location  the  outside  of 
the  wall  should  be  smooth,  and  covered 
with  a  waterproofing  compound,  to  prevent 
the  conduction  of  moisture.  A  4-inch  drain 
tile  around  the  foundation  may  be  necessary 
to  carry  away  the  excess  moisture. 
_   ,  Balloon     Frame.  —  This     construction 

'^ "***■■  makes  use  of  the  box  sill,  and  vertical 
studding  2  by  4  inches  in  size.  The  top  of 
the    studding    is    covered    by   a    plate,  to 


Second 
y">oor 


AMit  T-loor 


2VI0"  16'oc. 


•Moor- 


^  Concrete 
Wbll 


Fig.  222.— Wall  section, 
frame  construction. 


•8 ALLOOn  •  PRA«»  •  CO/TaTRC;«TJ»f«« 


Fig.  223. 


which  the  rafters  are  nailed.  No  heavy  framing  or  large 
pieces  are  used.  Studding  are  doubled  or  tripled  at  the 
corners,  and  doubled  around  openings. 


SILLS 


223 


Sills. — The  box  sill,  in  one  of  the  types  illustrated,  is  used 
in  the  usual  construction.  A  bed  or  wall  plate,  2  by  6  inches 
up  to  2  by  12  inches  is  used,  depending  upon  the  thickness 
of  the  foundation  wall.  The  edges  are  set  flush  with  the 
outside  of  the  wall,  or  may  be  1  inch  inside  the  edge,  so  the 
sheathing  will  be  flush.  The  joists  rest  on  this  plate,  and  the 
studding  may  rest  on  the  plate  and 
be  fastened  to  the  joists  or  may  be 
set  on  a  plate  over  the  sill  and  on  the 
subfloor. 

Joists. — Floor  joists  for  the  first 
floor  are  2  inches  thick,  and  2  by  8 
or  more  in  size,  depending  on  the 
span.     The  usual  spacing  is  16  inches 


•TMRte  TYPcaoi'  BOX  ai 


•BAU.00/1  •  C0n«TR0CT10/t 


Fig.  224. 


Fig.  225. 


apart  on  centers.  The  joists  should  be  made  level  on  top  to 
give  a  smooth  surface  to  the  floor;  they  are  sized  at  the  ends, 
or  shimmed  up,  so  they  are  all  level. 

Girders. — In  most  cases  it  is  possible  to  locate  the  cellar 
partitions  so  they  act  as  a  bearing  for  the  joists.  If  this  is 
done,  a  2  by  6  inch  plate  is  sufficient.  Where  needed,  the  girders 
are  usually  made  up  of  2  by  10 -inch  material,  as  wide  as 
needed.  The  joists  are  rested  on  a  bearing  strip  spiked  to 
the  girder,  or  hung  with  metal  joist  hangers.  The  girder 
should  be  continuous  between  walls,  and  supported  at 
intervals  of  8  to  12  feet. 

Bridging. — All  joists  should  be  trussed  or  braced  between 
bearings  to  distribute  the  load  and  stiffen  the  floor.  The 
bridging  used  for  this  purpose  is  1  by  3  material  cut  to  fit 


224 


FARM-HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 


diagonally  between  the  joists.  All  spans  under  13  feet 
should  be  bridged  once  in  the  span,  and  greater  spans  are 
bridged  at  two  points.  Before  the  bridging  is  secured,  the 
joists  should  be  spaced  at  the  top  and  bottom.  The  bridging 
must  be  nailed  at  the  top  before  the  subfloor  is  laid. 

Studding. — The  vertical  wall  members  are  2  by  4  inch, 
set  16  inches  apart  on  centers.     The  lower  end  rests  on  the 

sill  or  shoe,  and  the  up- 

ten 


T°T° 


m     m 


<&"Wai.i. 


A"  PAVTlTfOAl 


•  VSTALL'COJ^d-RUCTtorf  • 

Fig.  226. — Detail  of  walls  and  partitions. 


per  end  is  secured  by 
the  wall  plate. 

Method  of  Raising. 
—  The  corner  posts, 
made  up  of  three  pieces 
of  studding,  are  raised, 
plumbed,  and  stayed 
in  position.  The  ribbon 
or  ledger  board  is  placed 
in  position,  and  the  intermediate  studding  are  set  in  position 
after  they  have  been  notched  for  the  ribbon.  The  bottom 
of  the  studs  are  toe-nailed  to  the  sill,  and  the  tops  are  covered 
by  the  plate,  and  nailed.  Window  and  door  openings  are 
located,  and  the  studding  cut  out,  and  headers  and  sub-sills  set 
for  the  windows.  Large  openings  are  trussed  over  the  opening, 
to  support  the  weight  above.  Interior  studding  is  set  to  form 
a  6-inch  wall,  and  the  studding  placed  16  inches  apart,  or  as 
necessary  for  the  openings.  For  non-bearing  walls,  the  stud- 
ding is  sometimes  set  flat,  to  save  space.  The  narrow  wall 
is  commonly  used  in  closet  construction.  The  corners  of  the 
house  are  braced  by  diagonal  2  by  4-inch  braces,  at  an  angle 
of  about  60°  with  the  sill.  Diagonal  sheathing  is  often  used 
to  stiffen  the  house. 

Sheathing. — The  sheathing  is  1-inch  material,  either  plain 
boards,  or  shiplap,  fastened  to  the  studding,  with  eight-penny 
nails.  A  stronger  construction  is  secured  by  placing  the 
sheathing  at  an  angle  of  45°.  The  extra  cutting  and  material 
used  has  led  to  the  use  of  horizontal  sheathing  for  the  greater 
part  of  the  work. 


LATH  AND  PLASTER 


225 


Water  Table. — The  base  course  extends  around  the 
building  on  the  hne  of  the  floor  joists.  It  is  placed  outside 
the  sheathing,  and  supphes  the  connecting  trim  between  the 
masonry  foundation  and  the  siding. 

Siding. — The  exposed  outer  covering  of  the  house  is  made 
of  thin  clear  boards,  placed  over  the 
sheathing,  or  over  the  studding  in 
some  cases.  The  siding  is  usually 
lapped,  or  placed  in  shingle  effect. 
Lap  or  beveled  siding  is  the  most 
common  type.  Patented  or  drop 
siding  is  sometimes  used  on  cheap 
construction.  As  a  rule,  building 
paper  is  placed  between  the  sheath- 
ing and  the  siding,  for  warmth. 
Shingles  are  also  used  for  the  cover- 
ing, and  are  placed  similar  to  the 
roof  shingles,  except  where  a  wide 
exposure  of  5  or  5 J  inches  is  given. 
Stucco  over  the  sheathing,  over 
wood  or  metal  lath,  or  patented  lath  may  be  used. 

Lath  and  Plaster. — Plaster  is  used  to  cover  the  inside  walls 
of  the  entire  building  in  the  first  and  second  stories.  The 
lath  are  usually  of  wood,  f  by  If  inches,  by  4  feet  long.  They 
are  spaced  about  f  inch  apart,  or  the  thickness  of  the  lath. 
A  4-foot  lath  covers  three  spaces  between  studs.  Joints 
should  be  broken  every  16  to  18  inches.  The  best  lath  are 
made  from  white  pine. 

Lime  mortar  was  formerly  used  entirely  for  plastering. 
Three  coats  were  used,  the  lath  coat,  scratch  coat,  and  the 
skim  coat.  Several  weeks  were  required  to  allow  the  plaster 
to  dry  between  coats.  The  surface  was  hard,  and  adapted 
to  the  use  of  wall  paper.  Patent  plaster  is  now  used  almost 
exclusively,  and  must  be  applied  exactly  according  to  direc- 
tions. Two  coats  are  often  used,  the  first  coat  including 
the  former  two  of  the  Hme  plaster,  and  the  finish  coat  is 
sanded    for  exposed    wall,    or    hard    finished    with    Keene's 


•E-XTfR  lOR.-  COR/tER 


Fig.  227. — Exterior  corner, 
frame  construction. 


226 


FARM-HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 


Sh»o  Roor^ 


<3ABL.e  Roo^ 


Hip  ■Roo'P-  CjAAT»-Bti.  'Roo'P' 

.•pOU-R-TYPErS-O-p-ROOFS  • 

Fig.  228. — Common  shapes  of  roof. 


cement  or  lime  putty  without  sand  for  use  in  bathroom  and 

kitchen. 

Lath  and  plaster  are  measured  by  the  square  yard,  and  no 

deductions  are  made  for  openings.    The  placing  of  the  plaster 

should  be  done  by  ex- 
perienced plasterers. 
All  surfaces  should  be 
true,  and  corners 
straight.  Grounds  are 
used  to  keep  the 
thickness. 

Roof  Construction. 
— The  most  commonly 
used  roofs  for  farm 
buildings  are  the 
gable,  hip,  and  gam- 
brel.  In  the  gable  roof, 
the  two  slopes  are 
equal,  and  the  rafters 

may  all  be  cut  from  the  same  pattern.     The  gambrel  roof  is 

not  widely  used.     The  hip  roof  requires  experience  in  rafter 

cutting  to  secure  the 

correct  framing. 

The     amount     of 

slope  or  steepness  is 

called  the  pitch.     The 

common  pitches  are  J, 

i,  and  |.     Rafters  are 

spaced  16  inches  to  2 

feet  apart  on  centers, 

and   are  2  by  4  or  2 

by    6   inches    in  size, 

depending  on  the  span 

and  the  weight  of  the 

roof.     In  a  long  slope  the  rafters  are  supported  between  the 

plate  and  the  ridge  by  a  purUn.     The  cutting  of  the  rafters  is  the 

most  important  part  of  the  roof  framing.    See  Chapter  XXXV. 


•T?AT^TER*l/tPLAC2r' 


Fig.  229. 


-Hisy. 


-Illustrating  terms  used  in  connec- 
tion with  rafters. 


FLOORING 


227 


Sheathing  for  Roof. — For  slate,  composition  roofing,  or 
asbestos  shingles,  the  roof  sheathing  is  made  practically  tight, 
as  on  the  side  walls.  For  wood  shingles,  the  sheathing  may  be 
soHd,  or  made  of  1  by  4  inch  material,  spaced  2  inches  apart. 

Flooring. — The  floor  joists  should  be  covered  with  plain 
boards  or  shiplap,  to  form  the  sub-floor.  This  floor  is  laid 
diagonally  to  add  strength,  and  to  avoid  cracks  showing  in  the 
finish  floor.  The  subfloor  is  used  to  work  on  during  the 
construction,  and  is  laid  as  soon  as  the  joists  are  set.  In 
laying,  each  end  should  come  directly  over  a  joist. 

The  finished  floor  is  laid  after  the  standing  trim  is  in 
place,  and  may  remain  undisturbed  until  finished.  The  best 
flooring  is  xl  inch  thick  and  is  laid  over  a  subfloor,  or 
in  cheap  construction  is  laid  directly  on  the  joists.  A  thin 
flooring  f  inch  thick,  is  made  in  several  of  the  hardwoods, 
and  is  largely  used  to  cover  old  floors,  but  is  also  used  to 
afford  a  hard  surface  on  new  work.  The  exposed  face  of  the 
flooring  is  narrower  than  nominal  width,  and  there  is  consider- 
able waste  in  placing  it.  The  best  flooring  materials  are  yellow 
pine,  fir,  maple,  and  oak.  Quarter  sawed,  or  edge-grain 
material  is  usually  better  than  the  flat  sawed. 

Interior  Finish. — The  interior  finish  or  standing  trim 
consists  of  window  and  door  casings, 
baseboard,  moldings,  etc.,  of  either 
hard  or  soft  woods.  The  finish  is 
purchased  in  random  lengths  and 
cut  on  the  job,  or  is  made  in  units 
sufficient  for  each  opening  or  wall. 
Finish  lumber  should  be  clear  and 
free  from  defects  and  protected 
from  the  weather,  and  be  smoothed 
and  sandpapered  before  being 
placed.  The  nails  are  small-head 
finishing  nails,  and  should  be  set, 
and  the  holes  puttied  before  the  paint  or  varnish  is  apphed. 

Millwork. — The  built-up  work,  such  as  doors,  window 
frames,  panels,  stairs,  etc.,  is  known  as  the  millwork.     The 


COJ^/^or\  TYPES  •  o^- 
•BASEBOARDS- 

Fig.  230. 


228 


FARM-HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 


millwork  is  all  made  by  machinery,  and  many  companies 
make  a  specialty  of  this  work  for  houses.  Stock  or  standard 
sizes  should  be  secured  so  far  as  possible  to  avoid  extra  charges. 
A  discussion  of  millwork  sizes  is  found  in  Chapter  XXVII. 

Door  Frames. — The  frames  are  cut  at  the  mill  and  nailed 
together  on  the  job.  The  material  is  If  inches  thick,  and  the 
frame  is  rebated  for  screen  and  door.     Inside  door  frames 


PIL 


BACKBA/1D 
TWO  KI^DS  OF  CASl/tCa 

Fig.  231. 


SECTIO/i-CL: 


Fig.  232. — Detail  of  door  opening,  frame 
construction. 


are  made  from  1-inch  dressed  material,  placed  after  the 
plaster  is  dry.  The  doors  inside  fit  against  a  stop  molding 
on  jambs. 

Window  Frames. — Frames  for  windows  are  made  to  suit 
the  various  kinds  of  wall  construction.  The  principal  kinds 
of  frames  are  those  for  cellar  windows,  casement  windows, 
and  the  usual  doublehung  window.  The  cellar  window  is 
low,  being  made  to  fit  between  the  grade  line  and  the  water 


WINDOW  FRAMES 


229 


table.  The  sash  is  usually  If  inches  thick 
Ughts,  ranging  from  8 
by  10  inches  to  10  by 
16  inches.  Casement 
sash  are  made  to  swing 
either  in  or  out,  and 
the  screen  must  be 
placed  to  allow  the 
window  to  open.  The 
sash  is  hinged  on  the 
side  and  must  be  quite 
strong.  Care  is  neces- 
sary to  secure  a  tight 
fit,  in  order  to  prevent 
leakage  in  heavy  rains. 


having  three 


stcno/i  di 


CELLA-R.-  wti^Dow- details- 
Fig.  233. 


The  double-hung  window  is  the  common  type  used.     The 

two  sash  slide  past  each 
other,  and  are  counter- 
balanced by  weights. 
The  check-rail  window, 
in  which  the  center 
rails  overlap,  is  the 
best  type,  though  in 
cheap  construction  the 
plain  rail  is  used.  The 
two  sash  may  be  made 
plain,  of  clear  glass, 
the  hghts  divided  into 
several  panes  if  desired. 
A  common  method  is 
to  use  a  plain  glass  in 
the  lower  sash  and 
divided  top  light,  the 
divisions  being  avail- 
able in  a  variety  of 
forms.     The  size  of  the 


oPE/imQ  OUT 


OPE/TI/IO   l/f 


•DETAILS  •  CAStME^iT  •  WI/iDOWS 
Fig.  234. 


window  is  designated  by  the  size  of  glass  in  the  lower  sash. 


230 


FARM-HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 


Care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  frames  plumb  and  true  and 

the  heads  of  the  windows 
all  on  the  same  level. 
The  casings  should  be 
made  of  l|-inch  ma- 
terial, and  the  sash  If 
inches  thick. 

Stairs.— The  flat  part 
of  the  stairs  is  known  as 
the  tread,  and  the  ver- 
tical part  as  the  riser. 
For  an  "  easy  "  stairs, 
there  is  a  definite  rela- 
SEcno/1  tioii  between  the  treads 
and  risers.  The  product 
of  the  tread  and  riser, 
in  inches,  should  not  be 
less  than  72  nor  more 
than    75.     The    sum   of 

two  risers  and  one  tread  should  equal  25.     A  rise  of  7^  inches 


PLA^r 

•a)ooBLE-HC!rfQ-wi/iDow-M?AnE- wall- 
Fig.  235. 


•SECTlO/l-CL 


•PLAn- 
'WI/1DOW  •  BRICK-  WA  LL* 


Fig.  236.— Details  of  window,  brick 
wall. 


PLAl/t  CHEiCK 

•AlEtTirrci-  RAILS - 

Fig.  237. — Meeting  rails, 
double-hung  window. 


STAIRS 


231 


•  DETAIL-  3TDOL:  6,-  APRO/T* 

Fig.  238. — Details  of  window 
sill,  stool-and  apron. 


•STAIR- I>ETAlLa- 


Fig.  239. — Stair  details,  illustrating 
terms  used  for  various  parts. 


and  a  tread  of  10  inches  is  a  good  proportion.  In  the  usual 
construction  there  are  16  risers  between  floors.  The  risers 
are  supported  by  horses 
or  strings,  one  on  each 
side  of  the  stairs.  Stairs 
may  be  open  or  boxed, 
the  former  being  usu- 
ally finished  better,  as 
they  open  from  a  hall 
or  hving  room.  Balus- 
ters and  railing,  and 
newel  post  at  the  bot- 
tom are  used  with  this 
type.  Boxed  stairs  are 
inclosed  on  both  sides. 
Stairs    are    usually 

,.,,.,  -STAIRS- 6.-VlSIBl.t-PATiT3- 

built   m  two   or    more  Fig.  240.-Elevation  of  stair. 

flights    or    runs,    with 

a    landing    between,    which    is    square    or    rectangular,    and 


open  String 


232  FARM-HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 

may  be  used  for  a  turn.  Winders  should  not  be  used  in  the 
modern  house.  Headroom  of  6J  or  7  feet  is  necessary  for  the 
stairs. 

Stair  building  is  a  highly  speciaHzed  trade,  and  a  full 
discussion  is  not  possible  here. 

Cornice. — The  open  and  the  boxed  cornice  are  used  in 
farm-house  construction.     In    the    open    cornice,    the    rafter 


Fig.  241. — Stairway  in  house  shown  in  Fig.  218. 

ends  are  surfaced,  and  left  exposed.  The  half-round  or  box 
gutter  is  used.  The  sheathing  is  exposed  under  the  pro- 
jecting part  of  the  roof,  and  is  made  of  ceiling  lumber,  nailed 
without  spaces. 

The  box  cornice  is  used  on  porches,  and  on  many  houses. 
The  gutter  is  built  into  the  cornice,  and  the  rafter  ends  are 
boxed  in.  The  gutter  is  usually  made  of  boards,  hned  with 
tin  or  copper. 


CORNICE 


233 


QOARTBR  ROO/1D 


-OPC/1  CORy^ICt-  -BOX   COR/1ICE-- 

FiG.  242. 


CY/^A   REVISRSA 

-ynooLDi/^Gd - 
Fig.  243. 


%  1* 


COA\^0/^  TYPES •  ErXTBRlOR  DOORS' 

Fig.  244. 


234 


FARM-HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 


Moldings. — There  are  several  forms  of  moldings  used 
in  the  trim  of  the  house,  the  more  common  of  which  will  be 
mentioned.  The  quarter  round  is  used  for  the  carpet  strip, 
between  the  floor  and  the  base.  The  concave  molding,  the 
opposite  of  the  quarter  round,  known  as  cove,  is  used  between 
the  wall  and  ceiling.  The  convex,  half-round  molding  is 
called  the  torus,  and  is  used  as  a  necking  mold  in  columns. 


[—1  r— 1 

Orvc  Panel 


Two  Panel 


pTOor  Pane.1 


1 1 

1     1 
1 

1     1 
1 
1 

Five    "Pa  n  1 1     3)  o  o  r» 
COAl AT  071  •  INTERIOR 'DOO-RS, 

Fig.  245. 


The  concave  molding,  or  scotia,  is  used  between  two  torus 
moldings.  The  ogee  molding  is  used  for  both  base  and 
crowning  members.  Other  moldings  are  back-band  trim,  door 
and  window  stops,  picture  mold,  base  mold,  etc. 

Other  Terms  Used. — There  are  several  commonly  used 
terms  in  connection  with  interior  finish  and  millwork  which 
may  be  mentioned  briefly.  Standing  trim  refers  to  finish 
lumber  placed  around  openings  or  on  the  walls.     The  trim 


WOOD  FINISHES  235 

is  backed,  or  cut  out  on  the  back,  so  it  will  fit  snugly  against 
the  wall.  Casing  refers  to  the  trim  around  the  openings. 
The  back-band  trim  has  a  molding  around  the  trim,  to  cover 
the  rough  edges  of  the  material,  and  form  a  smooth  fit  against 
the  wall.  The  pilaster  casing  has  both  edges  of  the  trim  the 
same,  and  a  plinth  block,  against  which  the  bottom  of  the 
trim  and  the  base  terminate.  Window  stool  and  apron  are 
the  two  members  at  the  bottom  of  the  window.  The  base 
is  the  trim  member  around  the  lower  part  of  the  wall.  Interior 
j&nish  is  made  in  a  wide  variety  of  styles,  and  under  several 
trade  names.  A  simple  trim,  free  from  irregular  surfaces, 
and  easy  to  keep  clean,  is  to  be  desired. 

Wood  Finishes. — The  most  common  methods  of  finishing 
the  interior  woodwork  are  by  waxing,  varnishing,  or  painting. 

Wood  may  be  finished  in  the  natural,  by  sanding  the  wood, 
and  using  wood  filler,  clear  shellac,  wax,  or  varnish.  Stains 
may  be  used  to  bring  out  the  grain,  and  imitate  rare  woods. 

The  best  method  of  waxing  is  to  use  a  wood  filler  with 
two  coats  of  shellac  and  a  good  grade  of  floor  wax.  For 
varnishing,  the  wood  is  stained,  then  given  two  or  more 
coats  of  varnish.  The  final  coat  of  varnish  may  be  rubbed, 
or  a  dull  finish  varnish  bought,  to  give  a  finish  without  a  high 
gloss.  Coarse  woods,  such  as  oak,  should  be  given  a  coat 
of  paste  filler  to  fill  the  pores.  The  filler  is  rubbed  off  as  soon 
as  the  gloss  has  left  it,  and  may  be  applied  with  the  stain 
on  porous  woods.  Painting  is  desirable  for  bathrooms  and 
kitchen,  in  order  that  the  woodwork  may  be  washed,  enamel  or 
gloss  paint  being  used.  Five  coats  are  necessary  for  satis- 
factory enamel  work, 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

THE  TENANT  HOUSE 

Living  quarters  for  hired  single  men,  married  help,  or 
renters  are  classified  as  farm  tenant  houses.  The  increasing 
number  of  farms  employing  married  help,  and  the  better 
satisfaction  on  the  part  of  both  tenant  and  owner  when  the 
help  has  separate  quarters,  has  led  to  a  definite  demand  for 
♦■he  tenant  house. 

Industrial  housing  has  been  undertaken  on  a  large  scale 

during  the  past  few 
years,  with  marked 
success,  and  the  de- 
velopment of  the  farm 
tenant  house  is  along 
the  same  line.  Practical 
farmers  agree  that  the 
tenant  house  on  the 
farm  enables  them  to 
secure  and  keep  a  bet- 
ter class  of  help  and 
get  more  efficient  labor. 
Whether  the  married  tenant  is  a  share  renter  or  a  hired  man 
he  requires  comfortable  living  quarters,  a  garden,  and  a  place 
in  which  to  keep  a  few  chickens  and  a  cow. 

As  a  rule,  the  tenant  house  is  not  so  complete  as  the  farm 
home,  and  is  constructed  at  less  cost.  It  is  possible,  however, 
by  careful  planning  to  secure  comfortable,  attractive,  and 
practical  houses  for  the  farm  workers. 

Location. — The  tenant  house  should  be  located  away 
from  the  barns  and  outbuildings,  but  not  closer  to  the  road 

236 


Fig.  246. — Square  tenant  hour  c  m  U 


SIZE 


237 


than  the  main  house.  The  house  should  have  a  sodded 
lawn,  and  shade  trees,  and  be  made  as  attractive  as  possible 
by  planting. 

Size. — As  a  general  thing,  the  tenant  house  may  be 
smaller  than  the  farm  house,  and  the  rooms  may  well  be  on 
one    floor.     A    6-room 

house  or  less  is  usually  «.  1 

sufficient.  The  house 
that  is  nearly  square 
in  plan  is  the  most 
economical,  and  the 
square  or  rectangular 
house  may  be  used  to 
advantage. 

Arrangement. — The 
arrangement  of  the 
rooms  will  depend  upon  the  space  available  and  the  size  of 
the  house.  The  kitchen  should  connect  directly  to  the  dining 
room  and  rear  porch.     The  dining  room  should  be  of  sufficient 


Fig.  247. 


Foreman's  house  on  large  western 
Iowa  farm. 


PORCH 


Fig.  248. — Plan  of  square  tenant  house. 


PL.Mn-'T' ©nApe  Tt/iAnTHooae. 
Fig.  249. 


size  to  care  for  extra  boarders.     Porches  and  sleeping  rooms 
should  be  compact,  but  of  convenient  size. 

Kitchen. — The  kitchen  should  be  at  least    10  feet   each 
way,  with  wall  space  for  range,  sink,  built-in  cupboard  and 


238 


THE  TENANT  HOUSE 


work   shelf   or   table.     The   room   should   have   two   outside 
exposures,  and  cross  ventilation. 

Dining  Room. — The  dining  room  may  be  combined  with  a 
large  kitchen  or  large  living  room  if  convenient.  In  the  sepa- 
rate dining  room  the  space  should  be  provided  for  a  large 
table.     Light  and  cross  ventilation  are  important. 

Living  Room. — A  small  or  medium-size  living  room  is 
sufficient  for  the  tenant  house.  The  room  should  provide 
wall  space  for  piano,  book  cases,  and  couch  or  davenport, 
and  should  have  a  southern  exposure. 

Bedrooms. — At  least  two  small  bedrooms  should  be 
mcluded  in  the  tenant  house,  and  more,  if  extra  help  is  to  be 
boarded.  The  bedrooms  should  have  closet  space.  Windows 
on  two  sides  are  desirable. 

Bathroom. — A  bathroom  is  essential  in  the  tenant  house 
as  well  as  in  the  owner's  house.  The  same  septic  tank  may  be 
used  for  sewage  disposal  from  both  houses.  Guaranteed 
fixtures  and  a  good  installation  are  essential. 

Porches. — Porches  to  shade  and 
protect  the  entrances  and  afford 
outside  living  rooms  should  be  in- 
cluded in  the  plan.  The  porch 
should  be  7  to  8  feet  wide,  and  12 
to  20  feet  long.  A  porch  that  is 
screened  is  much  better  than  the 
open  porch  in  the  summer. 

Basement. — A  full  basement  for 
storage,  utilities,  vegetable  storage 
and  laundry  is  desirable.  The  cost 
of  the  basement  room  is  less  than 
for  any  other  part  of  the  house,  and 
affords  useful  space. 
Utilities. — The  hot-air  furnace,  either  with  pipes  or  of  the 
pipeless  type  is  desirable  for  the  tenant  house.  As  the  house 
is  usually  small,  and  on  one  floor,  the  hot-air  plant  is  sufficient. 
As  stated  above,  the  same  disposal  plant  may  be  used  for  the 
tenant   house   and    the   main   house.     If   electric    lights    are 


'PLA/t'J-*3HAPETEriArrT-HOOOE:« 

Fig.  250. 


ECONOMY  OF  CONSTRUCTION  239 

provided  for  the  owner,  the  wiring  may  be  carried  to  the  tenant 
house  at  sUght  additional  cost.  Running  water  can  usually 
be  supplied  from  the  same  system  that  serves  the  owner's 
house. 

Economy  of  Construction. — It  is  a  bad  mistake  to  attempt 
to  lower  the  cost  of  the  tenant  house  by  the  use  of  cheap  or 
shoddy  materials,  or   the  omission 
of   sanitary  equipment.     The    cost 
may  be  reduced  somewhat   by  the 
use  of  soft  wood   finish    and   trim, 
such  as   yellow    pine    or   fir.     The 
use    of    wall    board    in     place    of 
plaster  will  reduce  the  cost    also. 
Small  rooms,  especially  for  the  sleep- 
ing; rooms,  will  not  make  the  house       -^^     ^^^     r^ 
,  ,,      ■   .  *  IV.-        1  Fig.  251.— Tenant  house  in 

less   attractive.     Additional   rooms  j^^^ 

for  hired  men  in  the  tenant  house 

will  make  it  possible  to  do  away  with  help  in  the  farm  house, 
which  is  often  to  be  desired.  The  extension  of  plumbing, 
water  supply,  and  lights  from  the  main  house  can  be  accom- 
plished at  low  cost. 

Bunk  Rooms. — On  many  farms  several  men  are  kept  the 
year  around.  It  is  desirable  that  they  have  quarters  containing 
not  only  sleeping  rooms,  but  also  bath  and  recreation  rooms. 
The  use  of  separate  buildings,  or  rooms  over  a  garage  or  sales 
pavilion  affords  a  convenient  group  of  rooms.  The  rooms 
should  be  fitted  with  separate  beds,  bath,  comfortable  chairs, 
table,  magazines,  and  phonograph. 

Rooms  in  Main  House. — In  a  majority  of  cases  the  farm 
help  is  housed  in  the  farm  home.  If  this  is  done,  the  men's 
rooms  should  be  separate  from  the  main  part  of  the  house, 
and  a  rear  stairs  is  appreciated  alike  by  the  men  and  the  owner. 
If  the  help  is  in  the  same  house,  the  washroom,  where  the  men 
may  change  clothing  and  bathe,  is  almost  essential. 

Careful  planning  of  quarters,  and  a  considerable  invest- 
ment for  comfortable  homes  for  the  tenants  will  result  in 
better,  more  contented  help,  and  more  efficient  labor. 


CHAPTER  XXV 


FARM   HOME  EQUIPMENT 


The  development  of  farm  home  equipment  has  made  it 
possible  to  place  every  modern  convenience  of  the  city  house 

in  the  farm  home. 
The  labor-saving,  con- 
venient, health-pro- 
ducing features  of  run- 
ning water,  sewage 
disposal,  plumbing, 
heating,  and  hghting 
should  be  provided 
for  in  every  modern 
home.  The  tasks  of 
the  household  may  be 
lightened,  and  the 
workrooms  of  the 
house  made  light, 
pleasant,  and  comfort- 
able. 

The    most    recent 
developments    in    the 
line    of   home    equip- 
ment are  the  pipeless 
furnace,      mechanical 
refrigerating,  and  elec- 
tric current  for  house- 
hold motors  and  pumping.     Much  emphasis  should  be  placed 
on    the    importance    of    complete    equipment   for   the    farm 
home. 

240 


Fig.  252. — Sectional  view  of  pipeless  furnace. 


HOT-AIR  FURNACE 


241 


Heating  the  Farm  Home. — The  warm  air,  steam,  and  hot- 
water  heating  systems  are  the  common  ones  in  use  at  the 
present  time.  Stoves  and  fireplaces  for  cooking  and  heating 
are  being  rapidly  replaced  by  the  efficient  kitchen  range,  gas 
or  oil  stoves,  and  the  basement  heating  plant. 

Hot-air  Furnace. — The  warm-air  furnace  is  the  lowest  in 
first  cost,  easy  to  install,  and  requires  less  attention  than  the 
other  systems.  It  is  flexible,  and  responds  quickly  when  the 
fire  is  hghted.  The  disadvantage  of  the  air  furnace  is  the  fact 
that  there  is  likely  to 
be  some  leakage  of 
gases,  imperfect  distri- 
bution of  heat  in 
windy  weather,  and 
trouble  from  overheat- 
ing. 

The  furnace  should 
be  capable  of  heating 
the  house  to  70°  F.  in 
zero  weather,  A  fur- 
nace may  be  purchased 
which  is  guaranteed  to 
heat  the  house.  Many 
architects  recommend 
that  a  size  larger  fur- 
nace than  absolutely 
necessary  should  be  se- 
cured, as  the  larger 
one  would  require  less 
forcing,  and  be  more  economical  of  fuel.  Careful  installation 
is  necessary.  The  furnace  should  be  placed  as  near  the  center 
of  the  house  as  possible,  and  preferably  in  a  basement  with  at 
least  7  feet  of  headroom.  A  location  away  from  the  center 
should  be  toward  the  windward  side  of  the  house. 

The  two  types  of  *warm-air  furnaces  are  the  pipeless  and 
the  pipe  furnace.  The  pipeless  or  one-pipe  furnace  is  located 
in  the  basement  under  about  the  center  of  the  house,  and  the 


Fig. 


-Section  of  pipeless  furnace 
showing  grate. 


242 


FARM  HOME  EQUIPMENT 


heated  air  passes  directly  from  the  jacket  to  a  room  or  hall 
above.  The  heated  air  rises,  and  the  colder  air  settles  to  the 
floor.  The  doors  must  be  left  open  throughout  the  house 
to  secure  complete  circulation.     The  furnace  jacket  is  made 

in     two     parts,     the 
^^'  \     heated  air  passing  up 

through  the  center  of 
the  single  register, 
and  the  cold  air  re- 
turning around  the 
outside  portion  of  the 
register.  This  type  of 
furnace  is  low  priced, 
economical,  and  easy 
to  install  in  a  new  or 
old  house. 

The  pipe  furnace 
distributes  the  heated 
air  to  each  room 
through  thin,  asbes- 
tos-covered metal 
pipes.  The  pipes  from 
the  furnace  jacket  are 
called  leaders,  and  the 
vertical  pipes  are 
risers.  The  risers  are 
rectangular  in  shape, 
and  about  3J  by  14 
inches  in  size,  to  pass 
through  the  average 
partition  wall.  The 
opening  into  the  room 
is  covered  with  a  register,  adjusted  by  a  damper.  The  registers 
may  be  of  the  wall,  base,  or  floor  type.  The  base  registers  are 
usually  preferred.  The  hot  gases  frofti  the  fire-box  of  the 
furnace  pass  through  a  heavy  ring-shaped  radiator  to  extract 
all  possible  heat  from  the  fuel.     Furnaces  are  made  of  cast 


Fig.  254. — Showing  air  circulation  in  pipeless 
furnace, 


HOT-AIR  FURNACE 


243 


m 


\oi   Wota-r  Pip*./      T 


III  i^i  I 

Cold     Water  Pipe'' 
Cold   Air 


-PIPE-LErSS  -IKJ-Ry^ACE-TA-TTK-e.  •RADlftTOR-CO/^/>1E:CT10i^- 

FiG.  255. — Illustrating  method  of  heating  bathroom  with  a  water  coil  in 
pipeless  furnace. 


Fig.  256. — Section  of  a  warm  air  furnace  showing  underfeed. 


244 


FARM  HOME  EQUIPMENT 


iron  or  steel.     The  steel  is  likely  to  warp  and  twist,  due  to 
the  heat,  and  the  cast  iron  may  leak  at  the  seams. 

The  cold  air  is  taken  from  a  room,  in  the  house,  from  several 

rooms,  from  the  out- 
side, or  from  a  com- 
bination of  inside  and 
outside  intakes.  The 
cold-air  supply  from 
the  rooms  permits  of 
reheating  the  air,  and 
less  fuel  is  used.  The 
outside  supply  is  al- 
ways fresh,  but  cold 
air  must  be  constantly 
warmed.  A  combina- 
tion of  the  two  methods 
of  supply  will  give 
the  best  results.  The 
outside  supply  should 
be  taken  from  the  pro- 
tected side  of  the 
house,  and  provision 
made  to  regulate  its 
volume. 

Steam  Heating.  — 
Where  steam  is  used  as 
the  heat-carrying  me- 
dium, the  system  con- 
sists of  a  generator  or 
boiler,  distributing 
pipes,  and  radiators. 
Steam  heating  may  be 
classed  as  direct  and 
indirect,  and  also  as  low-  and  high-pressure  systems.  The 
direct  radiation  supplies  the  heat  from  radiators  in  the  room, 
and  is  the  common  system.  Indirect  radiation  carries  the 
heat  through  air,  which  is  warmed  by  steam  radiators,  placed 


Fig.  257. — Upright  steam  boiler,  sectional 
view. 


RADIATORS 


245 


Fig.  258. 


Horizontal  steam  bouer,  sectional 
view. 


in  the  basement,  or  under  the  floor.     In  the  low-pressure  sys- 
tem, the  steam  is  forced  to  the  radiators  under  Ught  pressure, 

and   the   condensation  

returns  to  the  boiler 
by  gravity.  In  the 
high-pressure  type,  the 
pressure  is  high  in  the 
boiler,  and  reduced  in 
the  radiators,  and  the 
condensed  moisture  is 
returned  by  mechanical 
means. 

Radiators. — The  ra- 
diators for  steam  or 
hot  water  may  be  either 
floor  radiators  of  cast- 
iron  or  wrought  pipe, 
or  cast-iron  wall  or 
ceiUng  radiators.  The 
floor  radiator  is  the  most  common.  It  is  made  in  sections, 
and  may  be  assembled  to  any  desired  size.     The  low  radiators 

are  more  efficient,  and 
are  convenient  to  place 
under  a  window  or  in 
a  bay;  the  high  type 
is  less  efficient,  but  re- 
quires less  floor  space. 
The  widths  of  radia- 
tors are  single,  two, 
three,  or  four  column. 
To  determine  the  size 
of  radiator  required, 
manufacturers  have 
published  handbooks, 
giving  the  square  feet 
of  radiating  surface  for  each  type  of  radiator,  and  the  number 
of  square  feet  required   per  room,  under  various  conditions. 


Fig.  259. — A  steam  heating  system. 


246 


FARM  HOME  EQUIPMENT 


The  purchaser  should  determine  the  amount  of  surface  required 
from  the  handbooks.  For  Hving  rooms  it  is  usual  to  allow 
1  square  foot  of  radiator  surface  to  20  or  25  cubic  feet,  if  there 


Fig.  260. — A  hot-water  heating  plant. 

is  exposure  on  two  or  three  sides.  For  sleeping  rooms  the 
radiation  is  lessened  to  1  square  foot  for  each  35  cubic  feet  in 
the  room. 


PIPING  SYSTEMS 


247 


Piping  Systems. — The  two  methods  of  piping  are  the  single- 
pipe  distribution  and  the  two-pipe  system.  The  one-pipe 
system,  usually  found  in  residence  work,  has  one  pipe  leading 
from  the  furnace  through  the  basement.  From  the  pipe, 
risers  are  taken  off  to  the  various  radiators,  and  the  con- 
densed steam  is  re- 
turned through  the 
same  pipe.  In  the 
two-pipe  system, 
both  a  supply  main 
and  a  return  are 
used. 

Each  radiator  has 
a  valve  to  regulate 
or  shut  off  the  steam, 
and  an  air  valve,  to 
permit  the  escape  of 
air  when  the  radiator 
is  filling. 

Hot-water  Heat- 
ing.— The  hot-water 
heating  system  is 
similar  to  the  steam, 
so  far  as  the  instal- 
lation is  concerned. 
A  two-pipe  system  is 
required,  to  carry 
the  hot  water  sup- 
ply, and  return  the 
cooler  water  to  the 
boiler.  The  warm 
water  is  lighter, 
causing  a  circulation  as  soon  as  the  water  in  the  boiler  is 
heated.  The  radiating  surface  for  hot-water  heat  must  be  at 
least  one-half  larger  than  for  steam,  as  the  heating  medium  is 
at  a  lower  temperature. 

Hot-water  heating  is  more  expensive  to  install  than  steam, 


-  HOT-  WATEtR-  HEATIAG  •  PLAi^T - 

Fig.  261. — Two-pipe  system  for  hot  water. 


248 


FARM  HOME  EQUIPMENT 


and  requires  attention  to  prevent  freezing  in  cold  weather. 
The  system  is  flexible,  and  may  be  closely  regulated,  and 
affords  a  uniform  heat.  Over  a  period  of  fifteen  years,  the  hot- 
water  heating  should  prove  the  most  economical. 

Space  does  nor  permit  of  a  full  discussion  of  heating  systems. 
A  study  of  each  individual  house  is  necessary  to  determine 
the  best  location  of  registers  or  radiators.  The  location  of  the 
boiler  or  furnace  for  the  best  distribution,  the  size  for  greatest 
efficiency,  and  the  amount  of  attention  required  should  be  taken 


a^^^^^^l 


Pig.  262. — Showing  method  of  transmitting  hot  water  to  barn  or  garage. 


into  account  in  selecting  a  system.  Heat  regulators,  where 
possible,  will  make  for  more  economy  of  fuel  and  a  more  even 
temperature.  In  the  steam  and  hot-water  systems  the  proper 
levels  and  slopes  should  be  secured,  to  prevent  water  hammer 
and  air  traps. 

Water  Supply. — Running  water  is  essential  in  the  modern 
farm  home,  as  the  use  of  plumbing  systems,  sewage  disposal, 
and  the  efficient  laundry  depend  upon  a  constant  water  supply. 
Aside  from  the  house  supply,  water  should  be  available  for  the 
dairy   barn,    feeding   yards,    garage,    and   lawn    and    garden. 


SOURCES  OF  SUPPLY 


249 


Once  installed,  a  water 
system  requires  little 
attention,  and  the  bene- 
fits are  worth  many 
times  the  cost. 

Amount  of  Water 
Required. — It  is  gen- 
erally assumed  that 
each  person  in  the 
household  requires  25 
gallons  of  water  per  day 
for  all  purposes.  Each 
horse  and  cow  needs 
10  gallons,  each  hog  2 
gallons,  and  each  sheep 
1  gallon.  In  addi- 
tion some  provision 
should  be  made  for 
fire  protection,   garage 


Fig.  264.— Assembly  of  the  pump  of  Fig.  263. 


Fig.  263. — Sectional  view  of  an  electric-driven 
pump  for  shallow  wells. 

work,     and     sprinkling. 

If  windmill  power  is 
used,  provision  should 
be  made  for  storing  at 
least  three  days'  sup- 
ply. With  gas  engine  or 
electric  motor  power,  one 
day's  supply  is  sufficient. 

Sources  of  Supply. — 
The  usual  sources  of  farm 
water  supply  are  deep 
and  shallow  wells.  Other 
sources  in  some  localities 
are  springs,  streams, 
lakes,  and  cisterns.  The 
purity  of  the  supply  is 
of  greatest  importance. 
If   the   water  is  drawn 


250 


FARM  HOME  EQUIPMENT 


from  streams  or  lakes,  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  contamina- 
tion through  animal  manures  or  household  wastes.  The  water 
should  be  filtered,  and  frequent  tests  made  to  determine  the 
purity.  Cistern  water,  usually  secured  through  the  collection 
of  rain  water  from  the  roof,  is  hkely  to  contain  vegetable  or 
animal  matter,  which  causes  the  water  to  become  stagnant,  and 
undesirable  for  drinking  purposes.  Springs  usually  afford  a 
supply  of  pure,  fresh  water,  and  if  the  spring  is  protected 
from  contamination,  the  supply  is  very  desirable.  Shallow 
wells  include  those  in  which  the  water  stands  not  more  than 
22  feet  below  the  surface,  and  deep  wells  include  those  of 
greater  depth  than  22  feet.  The  difference  depends  on  whether 
the  pump  will  draw  the  water  by  suction,  22  feet  being  the 
greatest  practical  depth  at  which  a  suction  pump,  or  lift  pump, 
will  work. 

Methods  of  Pumping. — The  methods  of  securing  the  water 
supply  depends  on  the  source, 
whether  springs,  wells,  or  streams, 
and  upon  the  elevation  of  the  water 
as  compared  to  the  height  of  the 
tank  or  storage. 

The  lift  pump  will  draw  water 
by  suction  to  a  height  of  about  20 
or  22  feet.  It  consists  of  a  cylinder, 
and  piston,  with  a  valve  arrange- 
ment, by  which  the  water  is  lifted 
by  forming  a  partial  vacuum  in 
the  cyhnder.  The  valves  prevent 
the  water  from  returning  to  the 
well. 

Chain  pumps  consist  of  an  end- 
less chain,  to  which  small  cups  are 
attached,  and  the  water  raised  by 
dipping  the  cups  into  the  water, 
and  elevating  them  by  a  crank. 
This  type  of  pump  is  used  principally  for  cisterns  or  shallow 
wells. 


•Sl/WLEACTIO/T  •  TO/IP  -Cf Ll/f  DER* 

Fig.  265.— Details  of  single- 
action  pump  cylinder. 


METHODS  OF  PUMPING  251 

Deep-well  pumps  are  used  where  the  water  is  to  be  raised 
more  than  22  feet.  The  cy Under  is  placed  within  about  15 
feet  of  the  level  of  the  water,  and  the  water  hfted  to  the  pump 
stock  by  raising  the  water  above  the  cyUnder. 

Force  pumps,  either  lift  or  deep-well  pumps,  have  the 
pump  stock  closed  tight,  in  order  that  the  water  can  be  forced 
from  the  pump  against  pressure  in  a  tank,  or  against  the  force 
of  gravity  to  an  elevation.  Force  pumps  may  be  operated 
by  engine  power,  electric  power,  by  hand,  or  by  windmills. 
They  are  in  common  use  with  the  average  water  system  on  the 
farm. 

Pneumatic  pumps  make  use  of  a  tank  of  compressed  air, 
which  is  forced  into  the  well  through  a  piping  system,  to  an 
arrangement  in  the  well 

^  ©el  I  vary  Pipe- 

which  forces  the  water 
to  the  taps  by  means 
of  the  compressed  air. 
Space  does  not  permit 
of  a  full  discussion  of 
this  type  of  pump. 

If     the     source     of  s^crio^  op  hvor^ouio  raa^ 

supply  IS  a    sprmg    at  Fig.  266. 

a  higher  elevation  than 

the  house  with  a  small  basin  at  the  spring,  and  a  pipe 
line  to  a  storage  tank  at  the  house,  the  water  may  be  secured 
without  pumping. 

The  hydraulic  ram  is  a  pump  operated  by  water  power. 
It  is  necessary  to  have  a  fall  of  a  few  feet  from  the  spring  or 
stream  to  the  ram.  A  valve  in  the  ram  is  opened  automatically, 
and  the  water  flows  to  the  ram.  When  considerable  velocity 
is  reached  by  the  water  in  the  feed  pipe,  the  waste  valve 
closes.  The  momentum  of  the  water  in  the  feed  pipe  then 
forces  a  small  amount  of  water  into  an  air  chamber,  and  up  the 
discharge  pipe.  The  ram  is  entirely  automatic  in  action, 
and  requires  no  attention  other  than  starting,  and  an  occa- 
sional inspection.  The  ram  uses  about  f  of  the  water  to 
gain  momentum,  and   delivers   about  y  to   the   supply.     Full 


252  FARM  HOME  EQUIPMENT 

directions  for  installing  are  furnished  with  each  ram.  The 
conditions  necessary  for  the  ram  are  about  4  to  6  feet  fall  to 
the  ram  for  momentum,  a  supply  of  water  ranging  from  3  to 
10  gallons  per  minute,  and  a  lift  usually  not  exceeding  30  or 
40  feet.  The  double-acting  ram  uses  water  from  a  stream  for 
the  motive  power,  and  supplies  the  system  with  water  from  a 
spring. 

Water  Supply  Systems. — The  two  general  classes  of  water 
systems  are  the  gravity  or  elevated-tank  system  and  the 
pressure  water  system.  In  each  type  there  are  several  different 
methods  of  installation  and  kinds  of  systems. 

Gravity  Systems. — The  common  gravity  systems  are  the 
attic  tank,  storage  cistern,  or  outside  tank.  Any  of  the  several 
methods  of  pumping  may  be  used. 

Attic  Tank  System. — This  is  the  simplest  and  the  cheapest 
method  of  securing  running  water.  A  wooden  or  galvanized 
tank  of  30  to  60  gallons  capacity  is  placed  in  the  attic  of  the 
house.  A  hand  force  pump  is  usually  used  to  fill  the 
tank,  and  it  must  be  filled  each  day.     A  hne  of  piping  from 

the  tank  to  the  bath 
and  kitchen  fixtures 
completes  the  in- 
stallation. The  dis- 
advantages of  this 
system  is  the  small 
storage,  hand  pump- 
ing, and  possibihty 
Fig.  267. — Cistern  for  water  storage  on  of  freezing  and  leak- 
earth  mound.  O^p-g^ 

Storage  Cistern  System. — If  there  is  a  hill  or  mound  near 
the  house,  at  an  elevation  such  that  a  storage  tank  could  be 
buried,  and  the  bottom  of  the  tank  be  above  the  highest  tap, 
the  cistern  can  be  used  with  the  water  system.  The  tank 
should  be  built  of  concrete  or  brick,  and  of  sufficient  size  for 
several  days'  supply.  The  buried  tank  prevents  freezing, 
and  keeps  the  water  cool  in  the  summer.  The  supply  pipes 
are  carried  to  the  house  underground,  below  the  frost  hne. 


OUTSIDE-TANK  SYSTEM 


253 


Outside-tank  System. — Most  gravity  water  systems  must 
make  use  of  an  elevated  tank  in  the  yards.  Elevation  is  secured 
by  placing  the  tank  on  a  wood  or  steel  tower,  a  masonry 
tower,  an  elevated  area  of  ground,  or  on  the  top  of  the  silo. 
The  exposure  is  a  disadvantage,  on  account  of  the  danger  from 
freezing,  and  sometimes  on  account  of  the  appearance. 


.♦In, 
EM-EVATtB    TAnK- 

Fig.  268.— An  elevated 
tank,  enclosed. 


Fig.  269. — Hydro-pneumatic  water 
supply  system. 


The  outside  tank  may  be  constructed  of  concrete,  tile, 
brick,  or  wood.  Strong  reinforcing  is  necessary,  in  the  form 
of  hoops  or  embedded  rods  in  the  masonry.  The  masonry 
tank  requires  waterproofing  with  commercial  waterproofing 
compounds  and  plaster.  A  good  type  of  gravity  tank  is  a 
wood  tank,  made  of  2-inch  cypress,  reinforced  with  hoops, 
and  supported  by  I-beams,  inside  a  silo-shaped  tower.     The 


254 


FARM  HOME  EQUIPMENT 


space  under  the  tank  in  the  tower  affords  a  good  cooling  room, 
or  small  tool  room.  To  protect  the  feed  and  supply  pipes 
from  freezing,  the  pipes  should  be  thoroughly  insulated  with 
paraffin,  dead-air  spaces,  and  felt  and  paper  coverings.  If 
some  water  is  pumped  into  the  storage  tank  each  day,  the 
water  from  the  well,  which  is  warmer  than  that  in  the  tank, 
will  tend  to  retard  freezing. 

Pressure  Water  Systems. — The  pressure  systems  consist 
of  a  steel  tank,  pressure  pump  or  air  compressor,  power  for 
pumping,  and  the  piping  system.     The  two  commonly  used 

systems  are  the  hydro- 
pneumatic,  which 
stores  air  and  water  in 
the  same  tank,  and 
the  pneumatic  system, 
which  stores  com- 
pressed air  only. 

Hydro  -  pneumatic 
Systems. — In  this  sys- 
tem, the  steel  pressure 
tank  is  filled  about 
three-quarters  full  of 
water,  and  one-quarter 
full  of  air.  The  com- 
pression of  the  air  in 
the  tank  forces  the 
water  to  the  taps. 
The  automatic  elec- 
tric-pump systems 
maintain  the  pressure 
between  certain  hmits,  without  attention.  With  a  gas  engine, 
or  hand  pump,  the  power  must  be  used  to  charge  the  tank 
when  the  pressure  becomes  low.  The  tank  may  be  placed  in 
the  basement,  or  buried  in  the  ground  at  the  edge  of  the  base- 
ment. The  hydro-pneumatic  systems  may  be  secured  for 
deep  or  shallow  wells. 

Pneumatic  System. — This  system  consists  of  compressed 


Fig.  270. — Pneumatic  water  supply  system. 


PNEUMATIC  SYSTEM 


255 


air  alone,  and  the  air  pressure  operates  the  air  pump  in  the  well. 
The    system    supplies   fresh    water    automatically    when    the 


Fig.  271. — House  plumbing  fixtures  and  septic  tank. 


spigot  is  opened.  The  pneumatic  water  system  is  a  more  recent 
development  than  the  other  systems.  It  is  proving  satis- 
factory, however,  and  the  higher  cost  is  in  many  cases  offset 
by  the  advantage  of  fresh  water  at  all  times. 


256 


FARM  HOME  EQUIPMENT 


Plumbing  Fixtures. — The  fixtures  used  in  the  bathroom, 
kitchen,  and  laundry  are  generally  understood,  and  require 
only  brief  mention  here. 

The  sewage  system  consists  of  a  soil  stack,  made  of  heavy 
4-inch  cast-iron  pipe,  extending  from  the  sewer  or  septic  tank 
connection  vertically  to  the  roof  of  the  house.  The  branch 
connections  extend  to  each  fixture,  and  must  be  given  a  slope  to 
the  main  stack.  The  stack  or  soil  pipe  and  branches  also  ven- 
tilate the  sewage  system.  Traps  or  water  seals  are  placed 
between  each  fixture  and  the  stack,  to  prevent  the  escape  of 
gases  through  into  the  rooms.  ''  Back-venting  "  of  each  trap 
is  desirable,  although  it  is  not  always  done.  The  back-venting 
consists  of  connecting  the  top  of  the  trap  with  the  soil  stack, 


Wa»h-Oot  Cl06»t  Hoppers  Trop  Clo»»t        Pntomatio  Siphon  CloMt 

•COAIAIO/T  •  TYPES  •  O^'WATER-CLOSETS  • 

Fig.  272. 


Jc^9ipho^  Closftt 


to  prevent  unsealing  by  syphoning.  Water-supply  pipes  are 
J  or  f-inch  for  the  cold-water,  and  ^-inch  for  the  hot-water 
pipes.  The  taps  or  cocks  are  brass,  nickel  plated.  The 
sewer  connections,  stack,  and  fixtures  should  be  carefully 
placed  and  made  tight.  In  freezing  weather,  if  the  house  is 
is  to  be  left  unheated  for  a  time,  an  excellent  method  for  pre- 
venting the  bursting  of  pipes  by  freezing  is  to  fill  the  traps 
with  kerosene. 

The  plumbing  fixtures  include  the  bathtubs,  closet,  lava- 
tory, kitchen  sink,  and  laundry  tubs.  These  fixtures  should 
be  of  iron,  with  a  guaranteed  porcelain  enamel  coating,  for 
the  average  installation.  Bathtubs  are  about  30  inches  wide, 
and  4J  to  6  feet  long.  The  tub  with  one-piece  base  is  pref- 
erable to  the  type  with  legs,  as  it  is  easier  to  keep  clean,  and 


SEWAGE  DISPOSAL 


257 


the  space  under  the  tub  is  tightly  closed.  The  lavatory 
should  be  in  one  piece,  with  splash  back,  and  large  roll  rim. 
The  closet  bowl  should  be  of  the  syphon  jet  type,  with  low- 
down,  porcelain  tank.  The  frost-proof  closet  with  the  trap 
several  feet  below  the  surface  is  used  in  cases  where  heat  is 
not  available  in  the  building.  The 
wash-down  closet  and  the  high  flush 
tank  should  not  be  used. 

The  kitchen  sink  is  about  20 
inches  wide,  by  24  to  30  inches 
high,  with  one  or  two  drain  boards. 
The  sink  should  be  of  enameled 
iron,  inside  and  out,  and  adjustable 
for  height.  The  sink  should  be 
made  with  a  splash  back.  Laundry 
tubs  are  made  in  pairs,  or  singly. 
They  should  have  convenient  drain, 
hose  bibbs,  and  provision  for  attach- 
ing clothes  wringer.  They  may  be 
enameled,  or  of  granite,  soapstone, 
or  slate. 

A   shower   bath    in    connection 
with  men's  wash  room  or  bathroom  is  a  convenience  that  should 
be  considered. 

All  lavatories,  baths,  sinks  and  laundry  tubs  should  be 
supplied  with  both  hot  and  cold  water.  The  hot-water  supply 
is  secured  by  attaching  a  hot-water  tank  to  a  supply 
pipe,  with  a  heating  coil  to  the  furnace,  range,  or  separate 
heater.  A  hot-water  tank  of  30  gallons  capacity  will  be 
sufficient  for  this  purpose. 

Sewage  Disposal. — The  disposal  of  the  wastes  from  the 
bath,  kitchen,  and  laundry  fixtures  is  one  of  the  most  important 
problems  of  sanitation  on  the  farm.  Formerly,  the  wastes 
were  often  emptied  into  a  cesspool,  or  dry  cistern,  from  which 
the  liquids  seeped  away,  and  the  solid  matter  was  cleaned 
periodically.  This  was  a  disagreeable  task,  and  the  seepage 
from   the   cesspool  endangered   the  water  supply.     In   some 


Fig.  273. — Common  kitchen 
sink,  bracket  fastening. 


258 


FARM  HOME  EQUIPMENT 


cases  the  sewage  is  dumped  directly  into  a  small  stream,  but 
this  method  is  objectionable,  because  the  raw  sewage  attracts 
rodents  and  flies,  and  the  sewage  may  contaminate  the  water 
supply  on  another  farm.  The  outdoor  privy,  and  the  prac- 
tice of  emptying  wastes  from  the  kitchen  and  laundry  into 
the  yard  are  insanitary,  dangerous,  inconvenient,  and  un- 
healthful. 

The  modern,  practical,  and  the  only  satisfactory  way  to 


———  ———20^0  -^^  mar*.- 

■^"  Sewer  Tile   Joints  Ccrnantcd 
Poll    ^'8  to  J4-  per  fooff 
Z-0-  or  more   deep 

Hooac 
Vl.Pif%  •  SOSSOIU-  »  WPOSAl.  •  POR-  StPTlC  Tftn  K 


Fig.  274. — Plan  of  a  sewage  disposal  plant. 


dispose  of  the  sewage  from  the  farm  house  is  by  means  of  the 
septic  tank. 

Septic-tank  Action. — In  the  septic  tank,  the  sewage  from 
the  house  is  carried  to  a  settling  chamber,  large  enough  to 
hold  the  sewage  for  about  twenty-four  to  forty-eight  hours. 
The  settling  chamber  is  dark  and  tight,  except  for  the  outlet 
pipe  and  vent.  The  sewage,  when  it  enters  the  tank,  is  attacked 
by  bacteria,  which  feed  on  the  sewage,  and  thrive  under  the 
conditions  in  the  tank.  The  bacteria  form  a  scum  over  the 
surface  of  the  liquid,  which  is  partially  airtight.  The  bac- 
terial action  of  these  ''  anaerobic  "  bacteria  changes  the  solids 
in  the  sewage  to  Uquids  and  gases,  except  for  a  small  amount 
of  sludge  or  solid  matter. 

From  the  settling  tank  the  liquid  flows  to  a  dosing  chamber, 
or  to  an  outlet,  depending  upon  the  type  of  disposal  plant. 
From  the  outlet  the  liquids  are  carried  to  a  filter,  or  sand 


TYPES  OF  SEPTIC  TANKS 


259 


bed,  for  further  action.  When  the  sewage  leaves  the  setthng 
chamber  httle  purification  has  been  done.  The  hquid  is  carried 
through  a  hne  of  drain  tile,  and  dumped  over  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  where  it  filters  into  the  soil,  or  evaporates,  and  the 
sunlight  and  air  complete  the  purification  process.  A  better 
method  is  to  empty  the  drainage  from  the  tank  into  a  trench, 
through  the  joints  in  the  tile,  and  allow  the  liquid  to  filter 
through  about  18  inches  of  sand  and  gravel  to  another  line 
of  tile  in  the  bottom  of  the  trench.     A  still  more  complete 


^-'Singlt'Y* 
Branch 


-  CROSS  SECTIO/^-  -LO-TTQlTODirfAl-  atCTlQ/i- 

•Sl/IGLtCHAraSItRSE-pTlC  -TA/IK- 

FiG.  275. — Single-chamber  septic  tank. 

method  of  purification  is  to  carry  the  drainage  to  a  sand  bed, 
about  20  feet  square,  and  allow  the  liquid  to  settle  through 
18  inches  of  sand  over  the  bed.  Either  the  sand  bed  or  trench 
should  always  be  used,  to  avoid  possible  danger  of  contamina- 
tion or  disease  spreading.  The  filter  takes  out  suspended 
particles  of  solid  matter,  and  further  purifies  the  liquid  waste 
by  the  action  of  ''aerobic  "  bacteria,  which  thrive  in  air  and 
sunlight. 

Types  of  Septic  Tanks. — There  are  several  types  of  septic 
tanks  in  use,  made  of  various  materials  and  in  different  shapes. 
There  are  several  commercial  tanks  on  the  market.  This 
discussion  will  be  confined  to  the  two  most  common  forms, 
both  of  which  can  be  made  on  the  farm. 

The  Single-chamber  Tank. — The  single-chamber  tank 
receives  the  sewage  into  the  one  chamber,  and  there  the  septic 


260 


FARM  HOME  EQUIPMENT 


Fig.  276.- 


-View  of  single-chamber  septic  tank 
before  covering. 


action  is  completed.     Th.    discharge  is  continuous,  or  there 
is  a  discharg;e  each  time  more  Uquid  enters  the  tank  from  the 

house.  The  continu- 
^  ous  overflow  does  not 
allow  the  filter  beds  to 
aerate  properly,  and 
they  become  inefficient 
in  time.  This  tank  is 
used  for  a  low-cost 
system,  or  where  the 
ground  is  so  flat  that 
not  enough  fall  can  be 
secured  for  the  double- 
chamber  tank. 
Double-chamber  Tank. — This  type  of  septic  tank  has  a 
settling  chamber  which  receives  the  sewage,  and  a  dosing  cham- 
ber, with  a  syphon.  The  discharge  into  the  dosing  chamber 
is  continuous,  and  the  chamber  is  large  enough  to  hold  the 
liquid  for  twelve  to  eighteen  hours.  When  it  is  full,  the 
automatic  syphon 
dumps  the  liquid  out 
into  the  drain,  and 
spreads  it  over  the 
ground  or  on  the  filter 
bed. 

Size  and  Construc- 
tion.— The  size  of  the 
septic  tank  of  either 
type  should  be  suffi- 
cient to  hold  the  sewage  for  twenty-four  hours  or  longer,  to 
allow  complete  bacterial  action,  but  not  long  enough  for  decay 
to  begin.  For  the  average  i:^rm  family  a  tank  3^  feet  wide, 
4  feet  deep,  and  5  to  6  feet  long  will  be  correct.  This  cares 
for  the  sewage  for  a  day,  and  p  ^mits  some  space  at  the 
top  of  the  tank  for  the  scum  to  lorm.  In  the  double  tank 
the  dosing  chamber  should  be  about  half  the  size  of  the 
settling  chamber. 


•D0C;B1.E;  •  CHA/n»E:T2- SEPTIC 'TA/fK  • 

Fig.  277. — Section  of  a  two-chamber  septic 
tank. 


CARE  OF  TANK 


261 


The  pipe  from  the  house  should  be  a  4-i'nch,  bell-mouthed, 
glazed  sewer  tile,  with 
cemented  joints.  The 
fall  should  be  from  | 
to  not  more  than  }  inch 
per  foot.  The  best  con- 
struction for  the  tank 
is  concrete,  of  a  1:2:  ! 
mixture,  with  walls  (i 
inches  thick,  the  top 
being  a  reinforced  slab 
of  concrete,  with  iron 
rings  inserted  for  lift- 
ing. Heavy-mesh  fence 
wire  will  afford  suffi- 
cient reinforcing.  The 
inlet  and  outlet  pipes 
should  be  put  in  place 
when  the  concrete  is 
poured.  A  baffle  box 
is  placed  at  the  en- 
trance, to  break  the  flow  of  the  sewage  and  avoid  disturbing 
the  contents  of  the  tank,  and  a  vent  is  made  in  the  top  of 
the  tank.     Usually  the  septic  tank  should  be  placed  50  feet 

or  more  from  the  house,  at  a  depth 
just  sufficient  to  place  the  top  of 
the  tank  slightly  below  the  sur- 
face. The  syphon  may  be  pur- 
chased from  a  commercial  com- 
pany ready  to  install. 

Care  of  Tank. — The  septic 
tank  should  be  cleaned  out  every  two  or  three  years,  and 
frequent  attention  should  be  given  to  make  sure  that  it 
is  working  properly.  Grease  in  quantity  will  prevent  proper 
action,  and  a  grease  trap  from  the  kitchen  drain  may  be 
necessary. 

Farm    Lighting. — Modern    methods    of    lighting    are    fast 


Fig.  278. — Two-chamber  septic  tank. 


'QlSEAaE  TRAP- 
Fig.  279. 


262  FARM  HOME  EQUIPMENT 

being  installed  in  the  farm  homes.  Natural  lighting  is  best, 
and  ample  window  space  and  correct  location  of  windows 
is  important.  The  artificial  lighting  for  the  farm  has  developed 
from  the  pine  torch  and  tallow  candle  to  the  kerosene  lamp. 
At  present  the  oil  'lamp  is  being  replaced  by  the  modern  light- 
ing system.  Kerosene  mantles,  kerosene  and  gasoline  gas 
systems,  and  patented  lamps  using  various  fuels  are  on  the 
market,  and  some  of  them  are  low  in  cost  and  reasonably 
efficient. 

For  modern  lighting  for  the  farm  home,  however,  only 
three  systems  are  important  enough  to  warrant  a  discussion 
here.     They  are  the  Blaugas,  acetylene,  and  electric. 

Blaugas. — This  gas  is  an  oil  gas,  and  its  manufacture 
and  distribution  is  controlled  by  an  Eastern  firm.  Gas 
plants  and  distribution  stations  are  located  at  convenient 
points  over  the  country.  The  gas  is  sold  in  steel  tubes,  each 
containing  about  20  pounds  of  the  gas,  which  is  compressed  to 
liquid  form.  The  system  consists  of  a  reducing  valve,  expan- 
sion tank,  regulating  valves,  and  the  necessary  piping.  Blaugas 
is  inexpensive  for  the  installation,  the  complete  plant  costing 
around  S150,  with  the  pipe  and  fittings  extra.  The  gas  is 
about  the  same  in  action  as  city  gas,  except  for  a  much  greater 
heating  value  per  cubic  foot.  The  system  is  highly  recom- 
mended by  users  both  for  cooking  and  lighting.  The  chief 
difficulty  with  Blaugas  is  the  necessity  for  returning  the  tubes 
by  freight  for  refiUing. 

Acetylene. — The  addition  of  calcium  carbide  to  water 
produces  a  hydro-carbon  gas  called  acetylene.  The  gas  burns 
with  a  white,  intense  hght  that  is  the  nearest  approach  to 
natural  light.  The  system  consists  of  a  generator,  tank, 
valves,  and  the  piping  system.  The  correct  type  of  generator 
is  the  one  in  which  the  carbide  is  dropped  into  water  by  a  clock- 
work arrangement.  The  generator  is  now  furnished  for  instal- 
lation in  the  house  or  out  of  doors.  The  outside  installation 
is  the  safer. 

Acetylene  has  a  rather  wide  explosive  range,  but  should 
be  safe,  if  handled  according  to  directions  and  the  installation 


ELECTRIC  LIGHTING 


263 


made  in  accordance  with  the  Underwriter's  rules.  The  gas 
has  an  unpleasant  odor,  by  which  leaks  may  be  detected. 
Open  flames  should 
not  be  allowed  neap 
the  generator,  and  fill- 
ing should  be  done  in 
the  daytime.  Calcium 
carbide  is  a  commer- 
cial product  which  may 
be  secured  through 
widely  distributed 
dealers.  The  cost  is 
more  than  for  the 
Blaugas,  but  somewhat 
lower  in  price  than  the 
electi-ic. 

Electric  Lighting. — 
The  value  of  elec- 
tricity and  its  many 
uses  are  well  known. 
The    transmission     or 

high-tension  hne  affords  a  valuable  source  of  current,  if 
available.  Many  communities  are  now  suppUed  by  the  central 
plant  and  the  cross-country  Une.     With  110  volts  available, 


Fig. 


280. — Sectional  view  of  acetylene  gen- 
erator and  tank. 


Fig.  281. — An  electric  lighting  plant. 


264 


FARM  HOME  EQUIPMENT 


the  farm  may  be  supplied  with  all  power  necessary  for  the 
farm  work,  at  a  low  cost  and  in  a  convenient  manner. 

The  isolated  electric  light  and  power  plant  is  a  develop- 
ment of  the  past  few  years,  and  the  distribution  has  been  very 
rapid.  Besides  furnishing  lights  for  the  house  and  barn,  the 
small  plant  has  sufficient  power  for  fiatirons  and  motors  up 
to  J  horse-power. 

Parts  of  Small  Plant. — The  individual  Hght  and  power  plant 
consists  of  engine,  generator,  switchboard  or  control,  and  the 
storage  battery. 

Engine. — The  engine  size  depends  on  the  size  of  the  plant. 
The  usual  size  ranges  from  1  to  4  horse-power.  The  engine 
may  be  of  the  two-  or  the  four-cycle  type,  either  air  or  water 

cooled.  The  light-plant 
engine  should  be 
steady,  smooth  .run- 
ning, and  simple  in 
construction. 

Generator.  —  The 
generator  is  rated  in 
watts  capacity,  ranging 
from  750,  or  practically 
1  electrical  horse-power, 
to  2000  watts.  The 
generator  is  of  the  di- 
rect-current type. 

Switchboard.— The 
control  board  contains 
the  fuse  plugs,  current- 
measuring  devices,  and 
the  starting  button.  In 
the  automatic  outfit, 
the,  control  is  a  part 
of  the  switchboard  apparatus.  The  automatic  plants  start 
and  stop  when  necessary,  and  throw  out  completely  when  the 
plant  is  overloaded. 

Battery. — The  usual  farm  plant  is  32  volts,  with  16  cells 


Fig.  282. — A  sectional  view  of  engine  and 
generator  of  the  plant  shown  in  Fig.  281. 


BATTERY 


265 


in  the  battery.  The  battery  is  rated  in  ampere  hours  capacity, 
based  on  the  normal  rate  of  discharge  for  eight  hours.  For 
example,  the  80-ampere  hour  battery  will  furnish  10  amperes 
of  current  for  eight  hours  at  32  volts,  or  320  watts  for  eight 
hours  without  recharging.  For  heating  elements,  or  motors 
requiring  more  than  the  normal  output  of  the  battery,  the 
engine  should  be  run,  and  the  current  taken  direct  from  the 
generator.  For  the  average  installation  not  less  than  a  160- 
ampere  hour  battery  should  be  used. 

Current  Used. — The  amount  of  current  depends  upon  the 
number  and  kind  of  fixtures.  The  following  hst  shows  the 
amount  of  current  consumed  by  the  average  fixtures.  Suffi- 
cient size  of  plant  and  battery  should  be  secured  so  the  plant 
will  need  charging  only  each  three  or  four  days. 


Fixture 

Current,  in  Amperes 
at  32  Volts 

20-wa,tt  lamp                                                    . .  . 

625 

40-watt  lamp       

125 

Sewing  machine  motor  .                            

1  5 

Vacuum  cleaner                                                   .  . 

5  5 

I  H.P  motor 

12  0 

Toaster                                  .               

15  0 

6-pound  iron 

18  0 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  table  that  the  use  of  heating 
devices  places  a  heavy  load  on  the  battery,  and  should  be 
operated  only  when  the  engine  is  running. 

General  Considerations. — A  waterfall  as  a  source  of  current 
is  possible  in  many  parts  of  the  country.  Where  possible,  a 
110-volt  generator  should  be  used,  of  large  capacity,  as  the  low 
cost  of  power  will  make  it  economical  for  all  farm  power 
work. 

As  a  rule,  the  plant  should  be  of  ample  capacity,  possibly 
larger  than  the  estimated  requirements  show,  as  there  will 


266 


FARM  HOME  EQUIPMENT 


be  a  tendency  to  use  more  lights  and  motors,  once  the  plant 
is  installed. 

A  battery  capacity  of  more  than   100  ampere  hours  is 
preferable  to  the  smaller  batteries,  if  any  motors  or  heating 


Fig.  283. — ^A  mechanical  refrigerating  plant  for  residence. 


elements  are  to  be  used.  It  is  possible  to  secure  direct- 
connected  and  belted-engine  outfits.  The  belted  plant  makes 
it  possible  to  remove  the  engine  for  other  work,  but  the  present 
tendency  is  toward  the  direct-connected  plant,  with  the  engine 
used  for  no  other  purpose. 


MECHANICAL  REFRIGERATION 


267 


It  is  necessary  to  use  heavy  wires  with  the  low-voltage 
plant.  No.  8  feed  wires,  and  No.  12  house  wires  should  be 
used  in  preference  to  smaller  sizes. 

A  separate  circuit  of  wires  in 
the  house  for  the  motors  and  iron 
is  both  desirable  and  convenient. 

Mechanical  Refrigeration. — The 
small  household  refrigerator  oper- 
ated with  electric  power  and  a 
small  motor  have  come  into  recent 
use.  The  refrigerators  will  auto- 
matically maintain  an  even,  dry 
cold,  and  freeze  small  blocks  of 
ice.  Manufacturers  are  working 
toward  the  development  of  the 
mechanical  refrigerator  for  use  with 
the  small  electric  plant,  but  as  yet 
none  is  available  for  the  32-volt  farm 
plant. 

Kitchen  Ventilation. — A  metal 
hood  over  the  kitchen  range  will 
ventilate  the  kitchen,  and  remove 
the  steam,  gas,  and  heat  in  summer. 
The  use  of  the  range  hood  will  aid  in  making  the  kitchen  a 
cool,  pleasant  workroom. 


RAnQB-HOOD- 

Fig.  284. — Range  hood  for 
ventilation. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 
FARMSTEAD  PLANNING 

The  early  development  of  the  farmstead  group  was  carried 
on  under  much  different  conditions  than  exist  to-day.  On 
most  farms  the  buildings  were  erected  over  a  long  period  of 
years  and  the  correct  relation  of  one  building  to  another  could 
not  well  be  maintained.  Protection  from  Indians  and  wild 
animals  often  compelled  the  location  with  reference  to  nearness 
to  neighbors.  Water  supply,  wet  lands,  or  timber  in  many 
cases  determined  the  location  without  reference  to  other 
factors. 

At  the  present  time  the  need  for  protection  against  enemies 
is  not  usually  a  factor  in  locating  the  buildings.  The  auto- 
mobile, telephone,  and  rural  mail  delivery  have  lessened  the 
isolation  felt  by  the  farmer  of  fifty  years  ago.  Shortage  of 
labor,  high-priced  land,  permanent  building  materials,  and 
architectural  considerations  have  each  had  some  influence 
on  the  problem  of  farmstead  location. 

Advantages  of  Good  Grouping. — The  advantages  of  a  good 
farmstead  plan  and  arrangement  of  the  buildings  are  almost 
self-evident.  The  more  important  are  efficiency,  appearance, 
and  sanitation. 

Efficiency  is  gained  in  a  grouping  of  the  buildings  to  save 
the  most  possible  steps  in  doing  the  farm  work,  both  on  the 
farm  and  in  the  necessary  work  of  marketing,  and  in  com- 
munity activities.  Duplication  of  steps  should  be  avoided. 
Gates  and  fences  should  be  arranged  to  afford  the  best  plan 
of  the  grounds,  and  to  interfere  least  with  the  work.  Distance 
to  fields  and  to  market  have  an  effect  on  the  efficiency  of  the 
worker. 

268 


ADVANTAGES  OF  GOOD  GROUPING 


269 


More  consideration  should  be  given  to  appearance  than 
has  been  given  in  the  past.  Usually  the  efficient  plan  is  also 
susceptible  of  treatment,  by  planting  and  arrangement,  to 
produce  the  best  appearance.  Appearance  has  an  influence 
on  the  selling  value  of  the  farm,  upon  the  pleasure  derived  by 


^    ^J  ^^-  '03*   \r£< 

-^  ^^  ^-^  ^  C-^ 


Garden 


flooae. 


L>    ^^iT^i'^^x 


^i*> 


o. 


v^ 


POBLIC  ROAD 

-  ^  1/TCOi^  VE-/11E:/1T-  AT^RA/IGlEnt/IT-  OF- 

Fig.  285. 


the  family;  furthermore  a  farmer's  standing  in  the  com- 
munity may  be  affected  by  the  appearance  of  the  building 
group. 

Sanitation  is  promoted  by  the  lay  of  the  land,  or  the  con- 
tour; by  drainage;  by  the  nature  of  the  soil;  and  by  the 
relation  of  the  stock  barns  to  the  dwelling  within  the  group. 


270  FARMSTEAD  PLANNING 

General  Problems  of  Arrangement.— Freak  arrangements 
should  be  avoided.  The  frequent  desire  to  place  the  buildings 
in  a  straight  line  or  on  a  curve  should  be  suppressed. 

The  buildings  should  occupy  positions  of  graded  importance 
in  the  group,  according  to  the  use,  appearance,  and  plan.  The 
house  should  usually  be  given  the  most  prominent  position, 
while  the  smaller  unimportant  buildings  should  be  subdued, 
and  possibly  hidden  by  plantings. 

Existing  farmstead  groups  that  are  unsatisfactory  may 
gradually  be  changed  into  a  good  arrangement,  even  though 
the  present  plan  is  quite  firmly  estabhshed.  Gardens,  feed  lots, 
and  fences  may  be  changed  with  very  httle  labor,  and  poultry 
houses  and  smaller  structures  moved.  Plantings  will  often 
aid  the  appearance  of  the  group  with  Httle  cost.  With  a  definite 
plan  in  mind,  permanent  structures  may  be  placed  in  their 
correct  position  as  it  becomes  necessary  to  replace  the  old  ones. 

Every  problem  of  farmstead  plan  is  a  subject  for  individual 
study,  and  rarely  can  a  good  plan  be  secured  by  following 
general  plans  in  detail  without  changing  to  fit  the  conditions. 

Best  results  in  planning  the  building  group  will  be  secured 
by  keeping  in  mind  the  principles  of  farmstead  location,  in 
connection  with  a  careful  study  of  the  farm  and  building  site. 
The  type  of  farming  and  the  section  of  the  country  will  have 
an  effect  on  the  location  also.  It  must  be  remembered  that 
certain  points  are  more  important  than  others.  For  instance, 
the  water  supply  is  more  vital  than  the  type  of  soil  on  which 
the  buildings  are  to  be  placed. 

Factors  Affecting  Location. — There  are  three  groups  of 
factors  or  conditions  which  affect  the  location  of  the  farmstead 
and  buildings.  They  are  the  outside  factors,  natural  conditions, 
and  the  relation  of  the  buildings  within  the  group. 

Outside  Factors  of  Location 

Transportation. — The  farmstead  should  be  placed  on  the 
best  highway  available.  Convenience  to  telephone,  rural 
delivery,  and  motor  truck  or  wagon  routes  is  important. 
Electric  lines  are  sometimes  available  if  the  buildings  are  close 


OUTSIDE  FACTORS  OF  LOCATION  271 

to  a  good  highway.  Ease  of  access  to  the  buildings  is  important 
when  many  products  are  sold  from  the  farm  through  the  medium 
of  annual  auction  sales.  Since  much  of  the  farm  produce  is 
hauled  to  market,  good  roads  lessen  the  cost  of  the  products. 
On  some  farms  the  electric  car  line  is  a  benefit  to  the  particular 
system  of  farming. 

Social  Factors. — The  farm  family  is  left  much  to  itself,  and 
requires  social  conditions  that  will  relieve  the  monotony  of 
the  living  for  many  people.  In  general,  the  farmstead  should 
be  placed  near  the  road,  rather  than  in  the  center  of  the  farm. 

Schools,  churches  and  neighbors  are  essential  to  the  social 
Ufe  of  the  farm,  and  nearness  to  these  features  has  an  important 
influence  on  the  location  of  the  farmstead.  The  development 
of  the  co-operative  associations  and  country  communities 
shows  the  need  for  consideration  of  conditions  outside  of  the 
farm  itself  when  locating  the  building  group. 

Markets  are  essential  for  farming,  and  nearness  to  market 
will  often  determine  whether  the  crop  shows  a  profit  or  a  loss. 
It  is  sometimes  possible  to  reduce  the  distance  to  market  by 
more  than  a  mile  in  every  trip  by  careful  selection  of  the 
building  site. 

Natural  Conditions 

Water  Supply. — The  existence  of  springs,  flowing  wells, 
or  streams  of  pure  water  often  determine  the  location  of  the 
buildings  without  reference  to  other  factors.  The  possibility 
of  water  pressure,  location  of  storage  tanks,  or  pumping  by 
means  of  the  hydraulic  ram  should  be  considered.  Since 
deep  wells  are  available  at  any  point  on  the  farm,  this  factor 
will  not  determine  the  location. 

Contours. — The  lay  of  the  land,  and  the  slopes  around 
the  farmstead  should  be  considered.  Drainage  is  essential, 
and  if  the  ground  is  not  naturally  well  drained,  it  is  necessary 
to  provide  tile  lines  and  ditches.  The  slope  of  the  groimd 
should  carry  the  surface  water  away  from  the  buildings.  The 
barnyard  should  not  be  drained  toward  the  house,  or  toward 
a  well.     Low  swampy  spots  near  a  building  site  are  undesirable. 


272  FARMSTEAD  PLANNING 

Buildings  located  in  a  valley  are  likely  to  be  improperly 
drained,  and  the  sunlight  is  not  effective  throughout  the  entire 
day.  Located  on  a  hill,  the  buildings  may  be  exposed  to  the 
winter  winds.  Steep  slopes  require  terraces,  and  a  good 
layout  of  the  buildings  is  often  difficult. 

Usually  a  slightly  rolUng,  south,  or  southeast  slope  is  to 
be  preferred  as  a  building  location.  The  house  should  be 
higher  than  the  surrounding  buildings. 

Nature  of  Soil. — Since  the  buildings  require  space  that 
might  otherwise  be  used  for  production,  they  may  well  be 
located  on  the  poorest  ground,  and  because  of  the  better 
drainage  and  sanitation,  they  should  be  located  on  a  light 
porous  soil  rather  than  a  heavy  clay.  Unless  other  factors  are 
equal,  no  especial  attempt  should  ever  be  made  to  place  the 
buildings  on  the  unproductive  soil. 

Protection. — Natural  features  of  protection  should  be 
utilized  to  shelter  the  buildings.  A  timbered  area  or  hill, 
in  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds  in  winter,  affords  an 
excellent  windbreak. 

Relation  of  Buildings  in  the  Group 

From  the  standpoint  of  efficiency  and  appearance,  the 
best  results  can  be  secured  by  careful  attention  to  the  location 
of  the  buildings  making  up  the  farmstead.  The  buildings 
must  be  located  individually,  for  their  special  requirements, 
and  with  relation  to  surrounding  buildings. 

Types  of  Farmsteads. — There  are  two  types  of  farmsteads 
in  use,  known  as  the  concentrated  and  the  distributed  groups. 

The  concentrated  group  includes  all  of  the  buildings  under 
one  roof,  or  all  of  the  buildings  connected,  that  is  the  struc- 
tures are  connected  to  form  a  sheltered  yard  or  court.  The 
advantage  of  this  grouping  is  in  economy  of  construction, 
and  the  convenience  of  handling  the  work.  The  disadvantages 
are  that  the  fire  risk  is  great,  animal  odors  are  objectionable  in 
the  house,  and  the  yard  space  for  the  stock  is  restricted.  Few 
farmsteads  of  the  concentrated  type  are  now  used  in  this 
country. 


RELATION  OF  BUILDINGS  IN  THE  GROUP 


273 


The  distributed  system  of  farmstead  location  is  the  type 
ahnost  entirely  used  at  the  present  time.  The  buildings  are 
far  enough  apart  to  avoid  stable  odors  in  the  house.  Fire 
risk  is  decreased,  and  usually  better  sanitary  conditions  pre- 
vail. The  buildings  should,  however,  be  located  closely 
enough  together  to  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  labor  required. 


■GOOD    FAR/^  STEAD  •  PLAn 


Fig.  286. 


The  exact  arrangement  will,  of  course,  depend  upon 
the  indi\'idual  problem.  The  best  farmsteads,  however, 
usually  arrange  the  buildings  around  a  rectangle  or  court, 
somewhat  to  the  rear  of  the  house,  and  on  one  side.  The 
house  is  the  most  prominent  building,  and  the  main  barn  is 
next  in  importance.  The  object  in  the  grouping  is  to  plan 
the  buildings  so  they   may  all  be   entered  without   passing 


274  FARMSTEAD  PLANNING 

through  gates.  The  court  should  afford  a  service  yard,  or 
drive,  and  the  feed  lots  will  be  located  to  the  rear  of  the  barns 
and  away  from  the  house. 

Aside  from  the  main  grouping  of  buildings,  other  buildings 
should  be  grouped  near  each  other,  according  to  their  uses. 
The  tool  shed,  machine  shelter,  and  garage  should  be  near 
together  because  of  a  similarity  of  uses.  The  corn  crib,  hog 
house,  and  cattle-feeding  shed  should  be  near  together  for 
convenience  in  feeding. 

House. — The  house  should  be  nearer  to  the  highway  than 


Fig.  287. — A  group  of  buildings  about  barn. 

the  other  buildings,  the  arrangement  and  planting  being 
made  with  the  object  of  showing  the  house  to  the  best 
advantage.  The  barn,  pubhc  road,  and  a  part  of  the  fields 
should  be  visible  from  the  house.  The  best  distance  from  the 
road  to  the  house  is  between  100  and  150  feet.  This  location 
affords  a  reasonably  large  lawn,  and  places  the  house  away 
from  the  dust  of  the  road.  The  facing  of  the  house  is  usually 
made  with  respect  to  the  road,  and  an  east  or  south  front  is 
usually  preferred.  The  lawn  in  front  of  the  house  should  be 
fenced  to  keep  poultry  and  small  animals  away. 

Bams. — The   stock   barns    should   be    set   with   the   long 
axis  to  the  north  and  south,  for  best  lighting,  and  to  form  a 


RELATION  OF  BUILDINGS  IN  THE  GROUP  275 

protection  for  a  sheltered  yard.  The  barn  should  be  150  to 
200  feet  from  the  house,  and  if  possible,  in  the  direction  away 
from  the  prevailing  summer  winds.  The  kind  of  stock,  the 
necessary  number  of  yards,  and  the  type  of  farming  will  have 
some  effect  on  the  location. 

Hog  House. — The  hog  house  should  be  farther  from  the 
house  than  the  barns,  on  account  of  the  odors,  but  near  the 
cribs,  for  ease  in  feeding,  and  to  be  easy  of  access  by  men  and 
teams.     The  location  for  sunlight  has  already  been  considered. 

Grain  Storage. — :The  corn  crib  and  granary  may  be  located 
for  convenience  in  filling  from  the  fields,  and  convenient  for 
the  sheller  and  grinder.  For  feeding  work  the  grain  buildings 
should  be  near  the  feeding  lots  and  hog  house.  There  must  be 
a  driveway  leading  to  and  from  the  building,  and  no  fences 
should  interfere  with  the  operations.  A  location  between 
the  hog  house  and  barns  is  desirable. 

Machine  Shelters. — The  principal  factor  in  locating  the 
machinery  buildings  is  the  convenience  in  getting  the  equip- 
ment in  and  out  of  the  shelter.  These  buildings  may  be 
nearer  to  the  house  than  the  barns,  while  the  garage  for  the 
car  should  be  near  the  house. 

Other  Buildings. — The  poultry  house  may  be  nearer  to  the 
dwelling  than  the  other  buildings,  but  should  be  kept  away 
from  the  barns  and  grain-storage  building.  It  should  face 
the  south,  and  be  located  on  porous,  well-drained  soil.  The 
ice  house,  milk  house,  and  pump  house  may  well  be  located 
between  the  house  and  the  dairy  barn.  The  other  small 
buildings  should  not  be  so  located  as  to  interfere  with  the 
appearance  of  the  group,  but  the  necessary  ones  should  have  as 
careful  planning  of  location  as  the  more  important  structures. 
As  a  rule,  the  fewer  miscellaneous  buildings  there  are,  the  better 
for  the  farmstead. 

Planting. — It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  text  to  discuss  the 
planting,  which  is  the  function  of  the  landscape  gardener 
and  architect.  Only  a  few  general  suggestions  are  necessary 
here.  There  should  be  an  evergreen  windbreak  to  the  north 
and  west  of  the  buildings  in  most  parts  of  the  country.     The 


276 


FARMSTEAD  PLANNING 


south  side  of  the  group  should  be  nearly  free  from  trees,  in 
order  to  take  advantages  of  the  summer  winds.  Natural 
timber  growth  is  sometimes  utihzed  as  a  windbreak. 


Fig.  288. — A  building  group  without  trees. 

Fruit  trees,  shade  trees  and  flowering  plants  and  shrubs 
are  desirable  additions  to  every  farmstead.  The  farm  home 
should  have  an  orchard  and  garden. 

Most  of  the  planting  should  be  along  the  sides  and  back 


Fig.  289. — A  building  group  among  trees, 


of  the  lawn,  rather  than  in  front  of  the  house.  Shrubs  and 
hedges  are  utilized  to  hide  undesirable  views.  Planting  in 
irregular  outline  is  usually  preferable  to  straight  rows.  All 
planting  is  for  the  purpose  of  beauty,  and  to  blend  the  buildings 


RELATION  OF  BUILDINGS  IN  THE  GROUP  277 

with  the  natural  surroundings.     Before  permanent  plantings 
are  made,  a  specialist  should  be  consulted. 

Farm  Layout. — The  layout  of  the  fields  is  a  problem  of 
farm  management.  Square  or  rectangular  fields  require  the 
least  fencing.  Irregular  fields  are  to  be  avoided,  because  of 
the  time  and  trouble  required  properly  to  cultivate  them. 
For  power  farming  the  large  field  is  the  most  economical. 
Pastures  should  be  near  the  barns,  to  avoid  lanes,  while  the 
farther  fields  may  be  used  for  hay,  cultivated  crops,  or  for 


Fig.  290. — A  farmstead  with  trees, 

grazing  feeding  stock.  There  should  be  no  open  ditches  in 
the  center  of  a  field,  if  it  is  possible  to  avoid  it. 

The  garden  should  be  near  the  house,  and  not  closer  to 
the  road  than  the  house.  The  use  of  a  show  pasture  in  front, 
or  to  the  side  of  the  farmstead  will  serve  the  double  purpose 
of  displaying  the  best  animals,  and  providing  a  clean  per- 
manent pasture  near  the  house,  instead  of  cultivated,  dusty 
fields. 

The  farmstead  for  the  farm  of  160  to  240  acres  will  require 
about  3  to  4  acres  for  the  buildings,  drives,  and  planting. 
Plans  calling  for  5  and  6  acres  of  space  are  rather  more 
elaborate  than  is  necessary  for  the  average  farm. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 
WOOD  AS  A  BUILDING  MATERIAL 

Wood  has  always  been  the  most  widely  used  building 
material  and  it  is  probable  that  for  some  time  it  will  continue 
to  rank  first.  Figures  published  in  1917  by  the  Division  of 
Forestry  indicate  that  the  annual  production  of  lumber  is 
40  biUion  board  feet.  Originally  the  supply  of  standing  tim- 
ber was  well  distributed  over  the  country,  and  the  forests  were 
thought  to  be  vast  enough  to  provide  sufficient  lumber  for  all 
time.  The  per  capita  consumption,  however,  has  increased 
at  the  rate  of  20  to  25  per  cent  each  decade  since  1860,  and 
due  also  to  the  great  waste  in  forestry  methods,  the  supply 
has  been  depleted  rapidly.  Government  estimates  place  the 
amount  of  standing  timber  large  enough  for  cutting  at  2800 
billion  feet,  which  at  the  present  rate  of  cutting  would  last 
something  over  sixty  years.  New  growth  and  forestry  practices 
will  doubtless  conserve  the  supply. 

The  logging  interests  have  followed  the  areas  of  heaviest 
supply  from  Northeast  to  the  South  and  West.  In  1850 
the  Northeastern  States  produced  54  per  cent  of  the  total 
lumber  in  the  United  States.  The  Lake  States  supplied  the 
largest  amount  in  1890,  and  in  1914  the  Southern  States  sup- 
plied nearly  one-half  the  total. 

The  cost  of  lumber  has  been  increased  by  the  greater 
cost  of  labor,  transportation,  and  manufacturing  involved  in 
securing  the  supply  from  remote  districts  and  from  a  decreasing 
supply. 

Advantages  and  Disadvantages  of  Wood. — The  advantages 
which  have  enabled  wood  to  hold  first  place  as  a  building 
material  are  low  cost,  wide  distribution,  ease  of  working, 
light  weight,  appearance  and  adaptabihty. 

278 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  WOODS 


279 


The  disadvantages  of  wood  construction,  as  compared  to 
other  building  materials  are  increasing  cost,  decreasing  supply, 
inflammabiUty,  tendency  to  decay  and  the  fact  it  is  unsanitary 
for  many  uses. 

Classification  of  Woods. — Woods  are  classified  and  known 
by  terms  which  distinguish  certain  characteristics.  The  classifi- 
cations which  apply  to  structural  timber  are  considered  here. 

Broad-leaved  and  Conifers. — The  broad-leaved  trees  are 
deciduous,  shedding  their  leaves  each  fall.  The  needle-leaf 
or  cone  bearing  trees  are  called  conifers,  and  are  termed, 
also,  the  evergreens. 

Hardwoods  and  Softwoods. — The  evergreens  or  conifers 
yield  the  softwoods  and  the  broad-leaved  trees  furnish  the 
hardwoods  of  commerce.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  yellow 
pine,  classed  as  a  softwood,  is  harder  in  structure  than  the 
bass  wood,  which  is  a  broad-leaf  tree. 

Endogenous  and  Exogenous. — This  classification  refers 
to  the  manner  of  growth.  Endogenous  trees  are  of  the  type 
of  the  bamboo,  or  palm,  which  has  a  hard  shell,  and  a  hollow 
or  pithy  interior.  The  trees  mostly 
used  for  structural  purposes  are 
the  exogenous,  or  outward-growing 
trees. 

Sapwood  and  Heartwood. — As 
the  tree  increases  in  size  the  cen- 
tral part  becomes  hard,  due  to  dry- 
ing out  and  because  of  the  compres- 
sion of  the  outer  layers  of  growth. 
This  part  is  called  the  heartwood, 
and  is  prized  as  a  building  material 
on  account  of  its  strength  and 
firmness.  The  layer  between  the 
heartwood  and  the  bark  is  called 
the  sapwood.  This  is  a  fight,  sappy,  porous  wood,  not  so 
valuable  as  the  heart.  A  small  pith  is  found  at  the  center 
of  some  varieties,  but  is  unimportant.  The  outer  bark  is  of 
no  value  from  a  structural  standpoint. 


Cortex 
oat 


opwoosl 


Heart  wood 


'STRUCTOREr-OP-WOOD  • 
Fig.  291. 


280 


WOOD  AS  A  BUILDING  MATERIAL 


Annular  Rings. — The  increase  in  diameter  of  trees  is  secured 
by  the  addition  of  a  layer  of  new  wood  each  year.  The  layers 
or  rings  are  quite  distinct,  and  barring  accidents  to  the  tree, 
the  age  may  be  calculated  by  the  number  of  rings,  which 
are  composed  of  two  parts,  the  spring  wood  and  the  summer 
wood,  the  former  of  which  is  thicker  and  more  porous  than  the 
outer  or  summer  wood  part  of  the  ring.  The  proportion  of 
dense  summer  wood  determines  the  weight,  and  to  some  extent 
the  strength  of  the  timber.  The  rings  form  the  grain  of  the 
cut  lumber.     Cut  radially,  the   rings    are  even  and  distinct. 


Bark 


Wood 


Qoat-ttr      AVcdol  larvyRav^ 
kFlakes 


liiim 

innolQr''Rin 


■E/TD  •  SECTIOi^  •  OF -LOG - 


Fig.  292.— End  section  of  log 
showing  annular  rings  and 
medullary  rays. 


Annoiar'  «inga 

"GRAii^  '\j^  -wood- 
Fig.  293. 


and  flat  cuts  show  the  grain  in  broad,  irregular,  and  V-shaped 
stripes. 

Grain. — The  grain  of  the  wood  is  the  factor  which  deter- 
mines the  beauty  of  the  wood  to  a  great  extent.  Fine-grained 
woods  have  a  dense  growth,  and  the  rings  are  close  together. 
Coarse-grained  woods  are  of  a  porous  growth.  Wood  is 
straight-grained  if  the  layers  of  fiber  are  parallel  to  the  trunk 
of  the  tree.  Twisted  or  deformed  growth  affords  the  "  curly  '' 
or  "  bird's  eye  "  grain.  The  term  ''  with  the  grain  "  refers 
to  the  direction  along  the  trunk,  and  "  across  the  grain " 
means  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  trunk. 


SOFTWOODS,  OR  CONIFERS  281 


Softwoods,  or  Conifers 


The  softwoods  are  widely  distributed  over  the  country, 
and  constitute  about  75  per  cent  of  the  lumber  supply. 

White  Pine. — The  white  pine  of  the  Central  and  North- 
eastern States,  and  the  sugar  pine  of  the  Pacific  Coast,  is  a 
Hght,  easily  worked,  moisture-resisting  wood.  The  trees 
are  tall  and  straight  with  few  branches.  This  wood  is  used 
largely  for  siding,  millwork,  shingles,  and  outside  finish. 

Yellow  Pine. — The  woods  belonging  to  the  class  of  hard 
yellow  or  Southern  pine,  are  the  most  widely  used  of  all 
woods  for  building  construction.  The  varieties  include  the 
several  species  of  long-leaf,  Norway,  short-leaf  and  loblolly 
pine.  With  the  exception  of  Norway  pine,  which  is  found 
in  the  North,  the  pines  are  classed  as  Southern  pine,  and  are 
distributed  over  the  Southern  States,  from  Virginia  to  Texas. 
Long-leaf  pine  is  the  hardest  and  strongest  of  the  pines. 

Yellow  pine  is  used  for  all  structural  framing  purposes, 
as  it  is  stiff,  strong,  easily  worked,  even  textured,  and 
plentiful. 

Fir. — Douglas  fir,  or  Oregon  pine,  is  used  for  framing, 
especialty  in  long  lengths.  It  is  similar  to  yellow  pine,  and 
takes  the  place  of  pine  in  all  framing  in  the  Northwest. 

Spruce. — There  are  several  varieties  of  spruce,  found 
in  the  Northern  States  and  in  Canada.  The  wood  is  light, 
soft  and  strong.  It  is  used  for  paper  pulp  and  for  framing. 
It  is  not  durable  when  exposed  to  the  weather. 

Hemlock. — This  wood  is  soft,  light,  cross-grained,  and 
brittle.  It  is  used  in  the  cheaper  grades  of  construction,  for 
framing  and  for  rough  boards. 

Cypress. — This  is  a  hght,  straight-grained,  fibrous  wood, 
found  in  the  South,  in  swampy  regions.  It  is  very  durable 
when  exposed  to  the  weather.  It  is  especially  desirable  for 
silos,  tanks,  and  siding. 

Cedar. — The  cedar  tree  produces  a  soft,  stiff  wood,  but 
is  not  strong  enough  for  building  frames.  It  is  very  durable 
when  exposed  to  the  weather,  and  is  used  for  shingles,  siding, 


282  WOOD  AS  A  BUILDING  MATERIAL 

and  posts.     Red  cedar  is  prized  as  a  cabinet  wood  for  chests, 
clothes  closets,  pencils,  and  cigar  boxes. 

Hardwoods 

Only  a  few  of  the  many  varieties  of  hardwoods  will  be 
considered  here.  There  are  many  woods,  such  as  cotton- 
wood,  that  are  used  for  building  construction  in  some  localities, 
but  are  not  of  general  interest  to  commerce. 

Oak. — There  are  many  varieties  of  oak  found  in  the 
United  States.  Oak  is  heavy,  hard,  and  tough.  White  oak 
has  these  quahties  to  a  marked  degree.  Red  oak  is  more  brittle 
and  not  so  durable.  The  present  scarcity  of  oak  precludes 
its  use  for  framing,  and  it  is  used  for  inside  finish,  floors,  imple- 
ments and  vehicles.  Oak  not  suitable  for  construction  is 
used  for  posts  and  ties.  Quarter-sawed  oak  is  used  for 
veneering  doors,  and  cabinet  work. 

Black  Walnut. — This  is  a  heavy,  dark  brown,  porous  wood. 
It  seasons  well,  takes  a  high  poUsh,  and  is  desirable  for  finish, 
veneering,  and  gun  stocks. 

Ash. — This  wood  is  tough,  quite  hard,  and  has  a  straight 
grain.  It  has  a  limited  use  for  house  trim,  and  is  used  for 
handles,  vehicles,  and  sporting  goods. 

Maple. — Hard  or  sugar  maple  is  a  heavy,  strong,  close- 
grained,  white  wood.  It  is  suitable  for  flooring,  tool  handles, 
carving  material  and  furniture. 

Birch. — Birch  wood  is  fine-textured,  hard,  and  strong. 
It  is  used  for  furniture,  for  house  trim,  and  veneered  doors. 
Birch  is  used  to  imitate  cherry  and  mahogany. 

Poplar. — There  are  two  kinds  of  poplar  wood,  the  white 
and  yellow.  The  wood  is  Hght,  soft,  and  moisture  resisting. 
It  is  used  for  outside  finish,  carriage  bodies,  for  carving  and 
turning. 

Other  Woods. — Basswood,  elm,  gum,  cherry,  and  other 
hardwoods  have  a  limited  use  in  building  work. 

Qualities  of  Wood. — The  qualities  used  to  describe  wood 
are  hardness,  toughness,  and  flexibihty. 

The  hardness  is  influenced  by  the  time  of  growth,  seasoning, 


HARDWOODS 


283 


and  weight.  Very  hard  woods  include  hickory,  hard  maple, 
black  locust,  and  white  oak.  Hard  woods  include  red  oak, 
elm,  ash,  walnut  and  long-leaf  pine.  Soft  woods  include 
most  of  the  conifers,  and  basswood,  poplar,  soft  maple,  etc. 
The  quality  of  hardness  should  not  be  confused  with  the 
general  classification  of  hardwoods  and  softwoods,  which 
refer  to  the  broad-leaf  and  conifers  as  a  group. 

Toughness  is  the  ability  to  absorb  shocks,  together  with 
strength  and  pliabiUty.  Elms  and  hickories  are  considered 
as  tough  woods. 

Flexibility  is  the  quahty  which  enables  a  wood  to  stand 
distortion  without  breaking,  and  the  tendency  to  return  to 
the  original  shape. 

Defects  of  Wood. — The  growth  of  wood  is  a  process  of 
nature,  and  the  quality  of  the  wood  varies  with  the  climate, 
soil  conditions,  storms,  and  accidents.  Some  of  the  common 
defects  are  listed  here. 

Heart  shakes  are  cracks  radiating  from  the  center  of  the 
tree,  and  are  caused  by 
the    shrinking    of    the 
inner    portion    of    the 
tree. 

Star  shakes  radiate 
from  the  center  of  the 
tree,  but  are  wider  at 
the  outer  end,  and  are 
the  result  of  a  drying 
out  of  the  sapwood. 

Cup  shakes  are 
cracks  between  the  an- 
nular rings  caused  by 
a  twisting  of  the  tree  in 
storms. 

Dry  rot  is  the  re- 
sult of  a  fungus  growth 

causing  a  dark  tinge  to  the  wood,  and  a  softening  and  crumb- 
ling. 


•«ErASO/^iyiQ  •  CHECKS' 


•k/~iot-        --rot-  ••warped' 

Fig.  294. 


284 


WOOD  AS  A  BUILDING  MATERIAL 


•T^tr^OVI^G  SLABS.  -SAWIi^G-lAtTO-BOARCS- 

'PLAI.^  •  OR  -TAAfGBnT-  SaWL^Q  - 

Fig.  295. 


Knots  are  caused  by  the  growth  of  live  tissues  around 
the  stub  of  a  broken  branch,  or  over  a  wound.  The  impor- 
tance of  the  defect  depends  upon  whether  the  knot  is  loose 
or  tight. 

Sawing. — Sawing  converts  the  timbers  or  logs  into  lumber. 
_  The  band  saw  is  pref- 

erable to  the  circular 
saw  for  cutting  the 
logs.  The  two  methods 
of  sawing  are  plain 
sawing  and  quarter 
sawing. 

In  plain  sawing  the 
log  is  squared  by  saw- 
ing off  slabs.  The 
squared  log  is  then  sawed  into  planks  or  boards,  the  cuts 
being  made  perpendicular  to  the  radius,  exposing  the  flat 
of  the  grain.  Plain  sawing  is  also  known  as  tangential  or 
bastard  sawing,  and  is  accompHshed  with  less  waste,  and 
more  easily  than  quarter  sawing. 

Quarter  sawing  is  done  to  secure  beauty,  durability 
and  strength.  The 
radial  cut  exposes 
even  layers  of  spring 
and  summer  wood, 
which  has  greater 
wearing  qualities.  On 
woods  similar  to  oak, 
the  radial  cut  ex- 
poses a  very  desirable 
grain. 

The  log  is  quartered  before  being  cut  Into  boards  or  planks. 
There  are  several  methods  of  cutting  out  the  pieces,  but  the 
best  results  are  secured  when  the  cut  is  as  near  radial  as 
possible.  Quarter-sawed  lumber  is  higher  in  price,  and  usually 
represents  a  more  desirable  material  than  plain  sawed 
lumber. 


QOARTE-RIi^G-LOG-  'P-OOR'AlfiTHOCS  • 

•  QOARTfiR  •  QAWI.^G  - 

Fig.  296. 


HARDWOODS  285 

There  is  always  considerable  waste  in  sawing.  Slabs  are 
used  for  lath  and  shingles,  or  firewood.  Sawdust  is  used  for 
insulation.  All  waste  boards  and  sap  boards  are  cut  into 
small  stuff,  or  lath. 

Seasoning. — Live  trees  are  cut  for  timber,  and  the  logs 
contain  a  large  amount  of  moisture.  New  surfaces  are  exposed 
in  cutting,  and  it  is  necessary  that  all  pieces  be  cured,  or 
seasoned,  before  being  dressed  and  used. 

The  two  methods  of  drying  are  known  as  air  drying  and 
kiln  drying. 

In  air  drying,  the  lumber  is  racked  carefully  in  yards  or 
sheds,  and  allowed  to  cure  in  the  air  for  six  months  or  longer, 
until  the  wood  is  thoroughly  dry. 

In  kiln  drying  the  lumber  is  racked  and  placed  in  a  heated 
room  to  cause  rapid  drying.  The  temperature  is  maintained 
at  170°  F.  for  from  four  to  ten  days. 

Lumber  Measure. — The  unit  of  lumber  measure  is  the 
board  foot.  One  board  foot  is  144  square  inches,  1  inch  thick, 
or  the  equivalent.  A  1  by  12-inch  board  has  a  board  foot 
for  every  foot  of  length.  A  2  by  6  piece  also  has  one  board 
foot  for  each  foot  of  length.  A  table  of  board  measure,  and 
board  foot  rule  will  be  found  on  page  358.  Lumber  is  usually 
sold  by  the  thousand  board  feet. 

Lumber  Grades. — The  grading  of  lumber  varies  with  the 
section  of  the  country,  and  the  practices  of  the  manufacturers' 
associations.  Rough  lumber  or  framing  and  boards  are  graded 
as  No.  1,  No.  2,  and  No.  3.  No.  1  lumber  is  clear,  straight, 
and  free  from  knots.  No.  2  admits  some  sound  knots,  and 
minor  defects  which  do  not  injure  the  structural  value  of  the 
stock.  No.  3  lumber  has  some  discoloration,  large  knots  and 
may  be  warped  or  twisted.  The  best  grade  should  be  used 
for  framing  and  exposed  surfaces.  No.  2  material  is  used  for 
sheathing,  roof  boards,  and  covered  areas.  Second-grade 
framing  may  be  used  in  small  and  cheap  buildings.  No.  3 
material  may  be  used  for  cheap  or  temporary  construction 
where  no  great  stresses  are  encountered. 

Millwork  and  siding  are  graded  as  clear,  select,  and  common. 


286  WOOD  AS  A  BUILDING  MATERIAL 

The  clear  stock  has  no  knots  or  defects,  while  the  select  and 
common  are  comparable  to  No.  2  and  No.  3  stock. 

Sizes. — Lumber  is  known  as  boards,  plank,  or  timber, 
according  to  the  size  to  which  it  is  cut.  Boards  are  sawed 
I  inch,  f  inch,  1  inch,  IJ  inches,  and  IJ  inches  in  thickness, 
and  from  2  inches  to  12  inches  wide,  or  wider  in  special  work. 
Plank  are  commonly  cut  2  inches  thick,  and  from  2  to  12 
inches  wide.  Timbers  are  4  by  4  to  12  by  12  in  common 
sizes,  and  larger  for  heavy  structural  or  bridge  timbers.  In 
each  case  the  size  increases  by  2-inch  increments. 

The  length  of  lumber  is  usually  specified  in  even  lengths, 
from  10  to  20  feet.  Longer  or  shorter  lengths  are  special. 
The  sizes  given  are  the  nominal  sizes.  Lumber  shrinks  some- 
what during  the  handUng  process,  and  much  of  the  commercial 
stock  is  sized  or  finished  in  the  planer.  The  actual  size  of 
dressed  lumber  is  from  \  inch  to  J  inch  less  than  the  nominal 
size.  No  piece  lacking  more  than  J  inch  of  the  nominal  size 
is  permitted  to  be  sold  as  the  nominal  size. 

Millwork  lumber  such  as  moldings  and  quarter  round  are 
made  in  several  styles  and  sizes.  They  are  selected  according 
to  the  kind  of  lumber  desired,  and  the  style.  Purchase  is 
usually  made  by  the  hneal  foot,  or  by  the  piece. 

Doors. — The  standard  thickness  of  doors  is  l|.  If,  If,  and 
2i  inches.  The  heavier  doors  are  used  for  outside  or  large 
openings,  and  inside  house  doors  are  If  inches  in  average 
construction.  Widths  are  from  2  to  3  feet,  increasing  by  2 
inches.  The  height  is  from  6  to  7  feet,  varying  by  2-inch 
increments.  The  common  residence  doors  are  2  feet  6  or  8 
inches,  or  3  feet  wide,  and  6  feet  6  or  8  inches,  or  7  feet  high. 
Doors  are  paneled  into  1,  2,  or  5  panels,  or  may  be  in  the  form 
of  a  slab.  Veneered  doors  are  better  than  solid  doors  when 
hardwood  is  used. 

Windows. — Window  glass  is  of  single  or  double  strength. 
The  heavier  glass  should  be  used  on  all  openings  over  16  inches 
square.  Windows  may  be  single  sash,  casement  or  double 
hung.  The  double-hung,  or  two-sash  window  may  be  plain 
rail  or  check  rail.     Glass  sizes  increase  by  even  inches  in 


HARDWOODS  287 

width  and  length.  The  size  of  the  sash  varies,  and  the  size  of 
the  window  is  designated  by  the  glass  size.  In  specifying 
sizes  for  either  windows  or  doors,  the  width  is  always  given 
first.  The  size  of  the  sash  is  usually  4|  inches  wider  than  the 
total  width  of  the  glass,  and  5  inches  longer  than  the  length  of 
the  glass.  Windows  are  If  inches  thick  in  common  sizes,  and 
If  inches  in  special. 

The  single-sash  window  is  ordered  by  giving  the  number 
of  panes,  and  the  size  of  each.  The  double-hung  window 
is  ordered  by  giving  the  size  of  each  light,  or  sash,  glass  size, 
strength,  and  how  sash  are  divided.  For  example:  one 
window,  two  Ught,  20  by  24  inches,  double  strength,  top 
divided,  four  vertical  divisions. 


Roofing  Materials 

Whether  the  roof  covering  is  of  wood  or  other  material, 
it  is  usually  included  in  the  lumber  bill,  and  purchased  from  the 
lumber  yard.  A  brief  discussion  of  wood  shingles  and  other 
roof  coverings  will  be  given  here. 

Wood  Shingles. — Wood  shingles  are  still  the  leading  roof 
covering.  They  are  of  known  quality,  and  the  familiar 
methods  of  handling  to  secure  a  good  roof  have  enabled  them 
to  maintain  the  lead.  Of  recent  years  attention  has  been  given 
to  the  use  of  preservatives  and  stains,  which  add  to  the  life  of 
the  shingle,  and  to  the  beauty  of  the  roof.  The  best  shingles 
are  made  of  white  pine,  cedar,  cypress  and  redwood. 

Shingles  average  4  inches  wide,  and  16  or  18  inches  long. 
They  are  packed  in  bundles  equal  to  250  4-inch  shingles,  or 
four  bunches  to  the  thousand,  and  are  sold  by  the  thousand. 
One  thousand  shingles  will  cover  sUghtly  more  than  a  square 
of  roof,  if  laid  4  inches  to  the  weather.  The  thickness  of  shingles 
is  measured  at  the  butts,  and  designated  as  the  number  of 
shingle  butts  in  a  width  of  2  inches.  Specified  5  to  2  means 
that  the  thickness  of  5  shingle  butts  is  2  inches.  The  best 
grade  of  shingles  is  "  5  to  2  extra  clears."  The  next  grade  is 
^'  Star  A  Star  6  to  2." 


288  WOOD  AS  A  BUILDING  MATERIAL 

The  width  of  shingle  exposed  on  the  roof  is  expressed 
as  a  certain  number  of  inches  ''  to  the  weather."  House  roofs 
are  usually  laid  4  or  4J  inches  to  the  weather,  and  not  more 
than  5  inches  should  be  exposed  in  any  case.  The  number  of 
square  feet  of  surface  covered  by  1000  shingles  is  determined 
by  taking  the  average  width  of  4  inches  times  the  exposure  of 
4  or  4i  inches,  multiplied  by  1000  and  divided  by  144.  The 
area  covered  per  thousand,  with  different  exposures,  is  given  in 
Chapter  XXXVII.  An  area  of  100  square  feet,  or  10  by  10 
feet,  is  called  a  square. 

Following  is  a  brief  suggestion  Hst,  adapted  from  a  bulletin 
of  the  National  Lumber  Manufacturers'  Association,  for  the 
proper  construction  of  a  shingle  roof: 

Roof  pitch  not  less  than  J. 

Rafters,  according  to  load,  but  not  over  2  foot  spacing. 

Roof  boards  surfaced  1  side,  8  inches  wide,  spaced  2 

inches  apart.     Nailed  with  8  penny  nails. 
Best  grade  of  shingles,  none  over  5  inches  wide. 
No  joints  directly  over  each  other  for  3  courses.    Break 

joints  IJ  inches.     Cover  all  nails. 
Nails  3|  or  4  penny,  cut  iron. 
Pitch  of  I,  expose  4^  inches.     Less  than  J,  4  inches. 

Asphalt  Roll  Roofing. — Ready  roofing,  or  roll  roofing,  is 
widely  used  as  a  covering  for  farm  buildings.  The  material 
is  purchased  in  rolls  sufficient  to  cover  100  square  feet,  and  the 
necessary  nails  and  cement  are  furnished.  The  material 
consists  of  several  layers  of  felt  or  burlap,  impregnated  with 
asphalt.  The  better  grades  are  3  and  4  ply,  with  asphalt 
coating.  The  surface  may  be  plain,  or  coated  with  crushed 
slate  particles,  in  red  or  green  colors.  There  is  a  wide  varia- 
tion in  the  quality  of  roofings,  and  only  the  best  grades  should 
be  purchased.  The  guaranteed  roofings,  warranted  to  last  for 
ten,  fifteen,  or  twenty  years,  are  very  serviceable.  Seven- 
eighth  inch  galvanized  nails  are  used  with  the  roofing. 

Asphalt  Shingles. — Asphalt  shingles  are  similar  in  compo- 
sition to  the  roll  roofing,  but  the  appearance  makes  them  more 


ROOFING  MATERIALS  289 

desirable  for  residence  or  garage  coverings.  They  are  made 
in  individual  shingles,  or  in  strips  of  4  or  5  shingles  together. 
The  usual  colors  are  red  and  green.  The  shingles  are  about 
8  inches  wide,  and  12  inches  long,  and  are  laid  4  inches  to  the 
weather.  They  are  sold  in  bunches  of  100,  and  four  bunches 
will  cover  one  square.  The  sheathing  boards  must  be  laid 
tight  for  roll  roofing  or  asphalt/  shingles. 

Slate. — The  use  of  slate  is  confined  largely  to  the  buildings 
in  the  eastern  part  of  the  country.  The  slate  makes  a  rather 
heavy  roof,  and  the  first  cost  is  high.  This  material  can 
be  secured  in  several  colors,  or  mixed  colors,  and  are  in  graded 
or  random  widths,  and  from  14  to  24  inches  long.  For  com- 
mon work  the  slate  should  be  about  -^  inch  thick.  The 
slates  may  be  punched  or  countersunk  for  the  nails.  A  slate 
roof  is  permanent,  of  good  appearance,  and  is  preferred  by  many. 
Three  pounds  of  galvanized  nails  are.  needed  per  square.  The 
slates  are  sold  by  the  square. 

Galvanized-metal  Roofing. — Metal  roofing  should  be  made 
of  a  high  grade  of  iron  or  steel,  galvanized.  The  thickness 
is  indicated  by  the  gauge  number,  the  highest  gauge  number 
representing  the  thinnest  metal.  The  sheets  may  be  plain, 
corrugated,  or  shaped  to  represent  tiles.  Metal  roofing  is 
desirable  where  weather  conditions,  such  as  extreme  heat  and 
dampness,  favor  decay  of  wood  shingles  or  the  disintegration 
of  roll  roofing.  There  is  a  wide  variation  in  the  quaHty  of 
roofing,  and  the  appearance  and  conductivity  of  the  metal 
do  not  favor  the  metal  roof. 

Roofing  Tile. — The  tile  roof  is  heavy  and  massive,  and 
is  not  used  to  any  extent  for  farm  buildings.  The  roof  frame 
must  be  made  heavy  to  carry  the  weight  of  the  tile. 

Asbestos  Shingles. — A  mixture  of  cement  and  asbestos 
is  used  to  make  the  asbestos  shingle.  It  affords  a  permanent, 
fire-resisting  roof.  The  shingles  are  about  |  inch  thick  and 
may  be  secured  in  a  variety  of  sizes.  They  are  usually 
furnished  in  a  gray  or  red  color.  They  may  be  laid  similarly  to 
wood  shingles,  or  to  form  diagonal  fines  across  the  roof. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 
CEMENT  AND   CONCRETE 

Concrete  occupies  an  important  place  as  a  material  of 
construction  on  the  farm.  Foundations,  floors,  and  walks  are 
built  almost  entirely  of  concrete,  and  its  use  is  increasing  for 
silos,  barn  walls,  septic  tanks,  storage  tanks,  and  in  house 
construction. 

Concrete  work  may  be  done  on  the  farm  at  odd  times 


III.  -197. — A  dairy  farm,  buildings  constructed  largely  of  concrete. 

by  the  usual  farm  labor,  and  is  a  very  economical  material 
if  sand  and  gravel  are  near  at  hand.  It  is  important  that 
the  reader  interested  in  farm  buildings  should  understand  the 
principles  of  concrete  construction. 

Concrete  is  a  permanent,  fire-resisting,  and  adaptable 
material,  easily  made  and  reasonably  low  in  cost,  which  makes 
it  advantageous  for  farm  work. 

Definitions. — Portland  cement  is  defined  by  the  Society 
for  Testing  Materials  as  ''  The  product  obtained  by  finely 
pulverizing  chnker  by  calcining  to  incipient  fusion  an  intimate 

290 


AGGREGATES  291 

mixture  of  properly  proportioned  argillaceous  and  calcareous 
substances,  with  only  such  additions  subsequent  to  calcining 
as  may  be  necessary  to  control  certain  properties.  Such 
additions  shall  not  exceed  3  per  cent  by  weight  of  the  calcined 
product."  The  above  definition  means  that  Portland  cement 
is  composed  of  approximately  25  per  cent  of  clay  or  shale, 
and  75  per  cent  limestone,  burned,  and  finely  ground,  with 
not  over  3  per  cent  of  gypsum  added  to  control  the  time  of 
setting. 

Concrete  is  the  product  resulting  from  the  mixture  of 
cement  with  inert  materials,  such  as  sand  and  gravel,  and 
sufficient  water  added  to  wet  the  entire  mass. 

''  Aggregates "  is  the  term  used  to  denote  the  inert 
materials  such  as  sand,  gravel,  broken  stone,  or  cinders. 

"  Portland  "  is  a  term  used  to  denote  manufactured  cement, 
and  contains  approximately  the  proportions  specified  by  the 
Society  for  Testing  Materials. 

Natural  Cement  is  the  product  of  rock  which  contains 
the  necessary  ingredients  for  cement  in  about  the  correct 
proportions. 

Amount  Used  Annually. — The  yearly  production  of  Port- 
land cement  is  more  than  100  miUion  barrels.  The  production 
of  natural  cement  has  decreased  until  it  is  no  longer  a  factor 
in  the  building  trades. 

Method  of  Marketing. — Cement  is  sold  in  paper  bags  or 
cloth  sacks  each  containing  94  pounds.  Much  cement  is 
sold  in  barrels,  containing  four  bags.  Large  contracting 
firms  using  cement  in  quantity  purchase  it  in  bulk,  in  carloads. 

Any  well-known  brand  of  Portland  cement  is  suitable  for 
farm  work,  and  the  availability  will  usually  determine  the 
brand.  Cement  should  be  reasonably  fresh,  free  from  hard 
lumps,  and  should  not  be  allowed  to  become  wet  before  using. 

Aggregates 

Sand. — Sand  used  in  concrete  work  should  be  clean,  and 
free  from  vegetable  matter,  and  when  containing  an  excess 
of  dirt  must  be  washed  before  being  used.     Sand  is  the  pro- 


292  CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE 

portion  of  the  aggregate  which  is  less  than  J  inch  in  diameter, 
and  should  be  well  graded  from  very  fine  to  J  inch,  as  a  large 
amount  of  very  fine  material  decreases  the  efficiency  of  the 
concrete.  Sharpness  does  not  affect  the  strength  of  the  con- 
crete to  a  noticeable  extent. 

Gravel. — The  most  easily  secured  and  widely  used  coarse 
aggregate  is  gravel.  Gravel  ranges  in  size  from  J  inch  up 
to  a  size  determined  by  the  character  of  the  work.  For  small 
work  the  size  of  the  particles  should  not  exceed  1  inch  in 
diameter,  while  for  large  work  the  gravel  may  contain  pieces 
2^  or  3  inches  in  diameter.  As  usually  found,  gravel  and  sand 
are  mixed  together  in  the  beds  or  pits,  and  the  mixture  is  known 
as  "  bank  run "  material.  The  bank-run  gravel  usually 
contains  an  excess  of  sand,  and  for  best  results  should  be 
screened  and  remixed  in  the  correct  proportions. 

Crushed  Rock. — This  material  may  be  used  in  the  concrete 
mixture  in  place  of  gravel.  Well-graded,  clean  crushed  rock 
is  preferred  to  gravel  for  some  work.  The  rock  should  be  free 
from  rock  dust  and  well  graded  in  size. 

Cinders. — Cinders  are  used  as  the  coarse  aggregate  where 
a  Hght-weight  concrete  is  desired.  Cinder  concrete  is  not  so 
strong  as  ordinary  concrete  work.  The  cinders  should  be 
free  from  dirt  and  dust. 

Water. — The  water  used  for  concrete  work  should  be 
clean,  and  free  from  dirt  and  vegetable  matter,  which  injures 
the  concrete  work. 

Proportioning. — The  object  of  mixing  the  aggregates  with 
the  cement  in  certain  proportions  is  to  secure  a  dense,  strong 
concrete,  with  the  greatest  possible  amount  of  coarse  material, 
to  reduce  the  cost.  Concrete  designed  to  withstand  heavy 
stresses  or  concrete  in  thin  walls  must  be  rich;  that  is,  it  must 
have  a  large  proportion  of  cement  to  coarse  aggregates.  For 
large  masses,  such  as  fills  and  footings,  the  concrete  may  be 
lean,  or  contain  a  large  percentage  of  inert  materials.  For 
various  uses,  certain  standard  proportions  have  been  worked 
out,  which  give  good  results.  To  understand  the  standard 
proportions,   it    is   necessary   to  refer   to  the  following   dis- 


AGGREGATES  293 

cussion,  upon  which  the  so-called  standard  proportions  are 
based. 

If  a  fairly  well-graded  volume  of  sand  is  analyzed,  it  will 
be  found  that  very  nearly  one-half  of  the  volume  consists 
of  air  spaces  around  the  sand  particles,  which  are  known  as 
voids. 

If  a  finely  pulverized  material  such  as  cement  is  added 
to  a  given  volume  of  sand,  it  will  be  found  that  the  voids  in 
the  sand  will  hold  1  part  of  the  fine  material  in  each  2  parts 
of  the  sand,  and  the  resulting  volume  will  be  very  little  greater 
than  the  original  volume  of  sand. 

Likewise,  if  the  mixture  of  cement  and  sand  is  combined 
with  gravel,  it  will  be  found  that  the  voids  in  the  coarse  material 

^, 

mmm 

Cemen*  Sand  P«.bble.s  Concrete 

I  CO.  ft.  2  CO.  ft.  4-  CO.  ft.  4-^  CO.  ft 

'X'TL'-A-   A\ixtore- 
-PROPORTlO^^li^G  •  CO/ICREtTE"- 

Fig.  29.8. 

will  hold  1  part  of  the  mixture  to  2  parts  of  gravel,  without 
greatly  increasing  the  volume  of  the  gravel. 

In  terms  of  cubic  feet,  it  follows  that  1  cubic  foot  of 
cement,  combined  with  2  cubic  feet  of  sand,  and  4  cubic  feet 
of  gravel,  will  produce  slightly  more  than  4  cubic  feet  of  dense 
material.  The  amount  of  cement  is  sufiicient  to  fill  the  voids 
in  the  sand,  and  coat  each  sand  particle  with  cement.  The 
sand-cement  mixture  will  coat  each  particle  of  gravel,  and 
together  they  form  a  mixture  which  is  strong,  dense,  and 
cheap  when  properly  mixed,  placed,  and  cured.  Aggregates 
vary  in  proportion  of  voids,  and  likewise  in  density  and  strength. 
The  usual  proportions,  however,  are  based  on  the  assumption 
that  the  above  theory  holds  good  under  average  conditions. 

Standard  Proportions. — The  proportion  of  cement,  sand, 
and  gravel  is  expressed  as  follows:     1:2:4,  meaning  1  part 


294  CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE 

cement  to  2  parts  sand  and  4  parts  gravel.  The  following 
proportions  are  most  often  used. 

1:2  or  1:3  mixture  of  cement  and  sand,  without  gravel, 
is  used  for  top  coatings  on  walls,  tanks,  or  walks.  It  is  used 
for  cement  mortar,  and  in  cases  where  a  fine,  rich  concrete 
is  desired. 

1:2:3  is  a  rich  mixture  for  tanks,  fence  posts,  troughs,  and 
similar  work  where  strength  is  necessary. 

1:2:4  is  the  standard  mixture  for  farm  construction,  for 
foundations,  floors,  columns,  silos,  and  other  farm  construction. 

1:2^:5  is  used  in  large  masses,  such  as  retaining  walls, 
where  strength  is  not  so  necessary  as  cheapness. 

The  above  proportions  are  for  screened  sand  and  gravel 
in  the  correct  amounts.  For  bank  run  concrete,  the  mixture 
of  1 :  4  corresponds  to  the  1:2:4  mixture,  and  1 :  5  mixture  of 
bank  run  gravel  is  very  little  stronger  than  a  graded  mix  of 
1 :  2 J :  5.  The  error  should  not  be  made  of  assuming  that  a 
1:2:4  mixture  is  equivalent  to  a  1 :  6,  for  in  the  first  case  there 
is  one  bag  of  cement  to  about  every  4J  cubic  feet  of  finished 
concrete,  while  in  the  latter  case  the  cement  in  the  finished 
work  is  but  one-sixth  of  the  total  material.  It  is  recom- 
mended that,  so  far  as  possible,  all  of  the  materials  be  screened 
and  remixed  in  the  graded  proportions. 

Amount  of  Water. — The  amount  of  water  to  be  added  to 
the  dry  material  is  usually  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  builder, 
and  is  based  on  the  following  grades  of  wetness: 

Dry  Mixture. — Enough  water  is  added  to  give  a  consistency 
similar  to  moist  earth.  When  a  quantity  of  the  mixture  is 
pressed  in  the  hand  it  will  form  a  ball  which  will  hold  together. 
A  dry  mixture  is  used  for  molded  articles  from  which  the  forms 
are  immediately  removed,  such  as  cement  blocks  and  tile. 
The  dry  mix  give  a  porous  concrete  as  compared  to  the  other 
mixtures. 

Medium  Wet  Mixture. — A  mixture  of  medium  wetness 
is  ordinarily  referred  to  as  being  of  a  "  quaky  "  or  jelly-hke 
consistency.  After  being  placed  a  medium-wet  mixture 
should  show  a  shght  amount  of  water  on  the  surface  of  the 


AGGREGATES  295 

concrete.  This  mixture  is  not  tamped,  but  is  rammed  and 
spaded  to  eliminate  air  pockets  and  to  give  a  smooth  surface 
next  to  the  forms.  This  consistency  is  the  most  widely  used 
for  farm  work,  for  sidewalks,  tanks,  walls,  and  the  like. 

Wet  Mixture. — The  wet  mixture  has  enough  water  added 
to  allow  the  concrete  to  flow  into  place.  It  is  necessary  to 
have  tight  forms  for  wet  mixtures.  The  wet  concrete  affords 
a  tight,  impervious  wall,  and  is  used  in  large  structures  and 
reinforced  work. 

Mixing. — The  two  methods  of  mixing  concrete  are  hand 
and  machine  mixing.  Hand  mixing  requires  a  considerable 
amount  of  labor,  and  a  small  concrete  mixer  should  be  secured 
where  any  large  amount  of  concrete  work  is  to  be  done. 

The  tools  necessary  for  hand  mixing  are  a  mixing  platform 
measuring  box,  water  barrel,  and 
square-end  hand  shovels.  The  mix- 
ing platform  should  be  10  by  12 
feet  in  size,  smooth  on  top,  and  as 
nearly  water-tight  as  possible.  Two- 
inch  lumber  is  best  for  the  con- 
struction. A  measuring  box  should 
be  used  to  determine  the  correct  ^^^  299.-A  mixing  box  for 
amount  of  each  ingredient.     A  box  concrete. 

18  by  24  inches,  and  8  inches  deep 

will  hold  2  cubic  feet;  it  is  made  without  a  bottom,  and  is  set 
on  the  mixing  platform  for  filUng. 

The  method  of  hand  mixing  usually  followed  is  to  spread 
the  crushed  stone  or  gravel  on  the  platform,  and  spread  the 
sand  and  cement  evenly  over  the  coarse  material.  The  whole 
mass  is  turned  completely  over  by  shovehng  until  the  batch 
is  a  uniform  gray  color,  and  the  cement  particles  cover  the 
aggregates.  The  correct  amount  of  water  is  then  added, 
and  the  mixture  thoroughly  stirred  until  the  whole  batch  is 
of  the  desired  consistency.  It  is  sometimes  considered  best  to 
mix  the  sand  and  cement  first,  and  add  the  gravel  afterwards. 

Small  mixers  equipped  for  hand  or  engine  power  are 
economical  for  farm  work.     The  cost  of  a  good  small  mixer 


-c.o/iCBe-re   ^ixi«o»ox- 


296 


CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE 


will  be  less  than  $100,  and  it  will  save  the  labor  of  at  least  two 
men  on  the  job.  The  usual  sizes  are  the  half  and  full  sack 
size. 

Placing. — All  concrete  should  be  placed  within  thirty 
minutes  after  being  mixed.  The  dry  mix  must  be  tamped 
into  the  forms,  and  the  forms  or  molds  may  be  removed 
immediately.  The  quaky  mix  is  spaded  and  rammed  into  place, 
and  the  wet  mixture  is  poured.  In  warm  weather  it  is  possible 
to  remove  the  forms  from  small  work  at  the  end  of  twenty- 
four  hours.  Forms  should  not  be  removed  from  walls  or 
foundations  for  several  days.  In  cold  weather  concrete 
requires  much  longer  to  cure.  All  work  should  be  kept  moist 
for  a  week  or  more,  and  shaded  from  direct  sunlight. 

Forms. — It  is  important  that  the  forms  be  sufficiently 
strong  and  well  braced  to  hold  the  concrete  until  it  sets. 

Concrete  in  a  wet  state 
weighs  about  150 
pounds  per  cubic  foot, 
and  requires  heavy 
bracing  and  forms  to 
hold  it  in  place.  For 
foundations  and  barn 
walls  forms  may  be 
built  of  rough  lumber, 
if  the  appearance  is 
not  important.  For 
exposed  work,  the 
forms  should  be  made 
of  smooth  lumber.  The 
cost  of  lumber  for 
forms  is  a  considerable 
item.  To  reduce  the 
cost  the  forms  are  often  made  of  material  that  may  be  used  later 
in  the  building.  Manufactured  forms  of  metal  are  desirable, 
as  they  are  smooth,  easily  handled  and  may  be  used  many 
times.  Metal  forms  are  especially  desirable  for  circular 
construction  such  as  silos. 


Fig.  300 


Forms  for  concrete  foundation 
wall. 


AGGREGATES 


297 


Reinforcement. — Reinforced  members  in  farm  buildings 
should  not  be  attempted  without  the  aid  of  a  competent  engineer. 
The  amoimt  of  steel,  the  proportion  of  steel  to  concrete,  the 
location  of  the  reinforcement,  and  the  load  to  be  appHed,  all 
affect  the  design  of  the  reinforced  members.  No  attempt  will 
be  made  in  this  text  to  cover  the  subject  of  reinforcing.  For 
small  work,  such  as  fence  posts,  well  curbing,  and  small  stock 
tanks,  the  amount  and  kind  of  reinforcement  are  so  well  known 
that  the  work  can  easily  be  done  if  directions  are  followed. 

The  economy  of  reinforced  concrete  hes  in  the  fact  that 
concrete  is  comparatively  low  in  cost,  and  is  strong  in  com- 
pression, thus  reducing  the  cost  as  compared  to  the  use  of  steel 
alone.  The  concrete  is  weak  in  tension,  hence  it  is  necessary 
to  add  an  amount  of  steel  sufficient  to  take  all  of  the  tension. 
Concrete  and  steel  contract  and  expand  equally  with  heat 
and  cold  and  thus  avoid  internal  strains. 

The  reinforcing  steel  should  be  placed  in  the  member 
in  such   position  that  it 


railed    140  lb& 


7*fo   reinforcing. 


f 


raileol   14-5 1  ba. 


-2-0- 


?  4*:: 


^ 


Rcin/brcing    in   fop. 


Failed   ZSOIbs. 


•Reinforcing  in  middle. 


Ptailed  assibs. 


■Reinforci'nj'Tn   bottom. 


will  receive  the  tensile 
stress.  In  the  case  of  a 
beam,  the  reinforcement 
should  be  placed  near 
the  bottom.  The  fence 
post  is  reinforced  at  the 
corners,  since  the  stress 
may  be  appUed  from  any 
direction.  A  simple  ex- 
periment performed  by 
the  Iowa  Experiment 
Station  shows  the  im- 
portance of  the  correct 
location  of  the  steel. 
Four  test  beams,  each 
1|  by  3  inches  by  3  feet 

long  were  made  from  the  same  batch  of  concrete.  One  beam 
had  no  reinforcement,  and  the  other  three  had  reinforcement  in 
the  top,  center,  and  bottom,  respectively.     The  beam  with  no 


! 


'Ol^  Rtl/irORClAlG'I/i-COnCRtTE" 

Fig.  301. — Results  of  an  experiment  to 
demonstrate  proper  placing  of  reinforce- 
ment. 


298  CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE 

steel  broke  when  a  total  of  140  pounds  was  applied  at  the 
center.  With  the  steel  at  the  top,  the  second  beam  broke  at 
145  pounds.  The  reinforcement  at  the  center  sustained  a  weight 
of  290  pounds,  while  the  beam  properly  reinforced  with  the 
steel  near  the  bottom  required  a  load  of  855  pounds  to 
break  it. 

The  following  formula  for  tank  reinforcing  is  taken  from 
Taylor  and  Thompson's  "  Treatise  on  Concrete": 

,      mAHD 

where  H  =  Height  of  tank  above  section  considered ; 
D   ^Diameter  of  tank  in  feet; 
A/,  =  Area  of    steel   required    (square  inches,   per  foot 

of  height  at  section  considered); 
/,   =16,000; 
62.4  =  Weight  of  water  per  cubic  foot. 

Finishing. — Much  of  the  sidewalk  and  floor  work  is  made 
in  two  courses,  the  top  coat  or  finish  course  being  richer,  and 
made  of  fine  materials.  The  top  course  is  usually  made  of  a 
mortar  of  cement  and  sand  in  the  proportion  of  1:2.  The 
rich  top  course  improves  the  appearance  and  increases  the 
wearing  qualities  of  the  concrete. 

A  smooth  finish  is  secured  by  means  of  a  steel  trowel, 
and  the  rough  finish  is  made  by  "  brooming  "  with  a  heavy 
broom,  or  "  floating "  with  a  wooden  trowel.  The  use  of 
edging  and  jointing  tools  is  essential  on  the  careful  job.  Tanks 
and  cisterns  may  be  given  a  finish  coat  of  cement  and  sand 
in  the  form  of  a  plaster,  troweled  smooth.  The  inside  of 
concrete  silos  is  often  given  a  wash,  made  by  mixing  pure 
cement  and  water  in  the  form  of  a  paste. 

In  finishing  large  areas  of  concrete,  as  floors,  sidewalks, 
or  pavements,  it  is  necessary  to  provide  expansion  joints. 
For  inside  work  the  joints  may  be  15  feet  or  more  each  way. 
Sidewalks  should  have  a  joint  every  25  to  30  feet.  Feeding 
floors  and  similar  construction  should  have  a  joint  about  every 
10  feet  each  way.     The  best  joints  are  made  by  leaving  an 


CONCRETE  CONSTRUCTION  299 

interval  of  1  inch  through  the  concrete,  and  fiUing  the  space 
with  asphalt.  A  sand  joint  in  the  bottom  course,  and  a  cut 
joint  directly  above  in  the  finish  course  will  serve  the  same 
purpose. 

Cold-weather  Concreting. — In  the  past,  concrete  work 
in  the  North  usually  ended  with  the  coming  of  winter,  but 
at  the  present  time  many  buildings  of  concrete  are  built  in 
freezing  weather.  The  advantage  of  winter  concrete  work 
on  the  farm  is  that  plenty  of  time  is  available  for  doing  the 
work  without  outside  labor.  The  troubles  encountered,  and 
the  precautions  which  must  be  observed,  are:  (1)  Cold  delays 
hardening  or  setting,  and  it  is  necessary  to  leave  the  forms  on 
longer  than  in  warm  weather;  (2)  the  finished  work  must  be 
protected  from  abrupt  changes  in  temperature,  and  from 
alternate  freezing  and  thawing;  (3)  materials  used  in  the 
construction  must  be  heated,  to  aid  setting,  and  to  prevent 
the  possibility  of  ice  becoming  embedded  in  the  concrete. 

For  winter  concrete  work,  the  aggregates  and  the  water 
should  be  heated,  the  forms  warmed,  if  metal  is  used,  and  all 
work  should  be  protected  immediately  after  placing,  by 
means  of  straw,  manure,  or  a  cloth  covering. 

Concrete  Construction 

Mortar. — Portland-cement  mortar  is  recommended  for  use 
with  hollow  tile  construction,  for  walls,  silos,  and  foundations. 
The  mortar  is  made  by  mixing  1  part  of  cement  with  2J  or 
3  parts  of  sand,  and  10  per  cent,  by  volume  of  lime  putty. 
The  hme  gives  a  mortar  of  better  working  qualities,  and  greater 
strength,  than  the  pure  cement  and  sand  mixture. 

Floors. — Concrete  floors  for  farm  buildings  may  be  laid  as 
single-  or  double-course  floors.  The  single-course  floor  is  made 
from  one  thickness  of  concrete,  while  the  double  floor  has  a 
bottom  course  of  medium  or  lean  concrete,  covered  with  a  top 
course,  f  to  1  inch  thick,  of  rich  cement  mortar. 

Floors  may  be  laid  directly  on  the  ground  if  the  soil  is 
porous  and  well  drained.     For  moist,  wet  soils,  there  should 


300  CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE 

be  a  fill  of  about  6  inches  of  cinders  or  gravel,  well  packed,  to 
keep  the  floor  dry. 

A  mixture  of  1  :  2  :  4  is  the  best  for  all  floors,  or  with  bank 
run  gravel,  the  mixture  should  be  made  1  :  4  or  1  :  5,  of  quaky 
consistency.  To  drain  the  surface  all  floors  should  be  given  a 
slight  slope  or  pitch,  which  will  vary  from  ^  to  J  inch.  The 
two-course  floor  is  considered  the  best.  Floors  are  finished 
smooth  with  a  steel  trowel,  or  rough  floated  with  a  wood  trowel. 
Dairy-bam  Floors. — In  laying  the  dairy-barn  floor,  there 
are  a  few  special  directions  that  should  be  followed.  The 
curb  which  holds  the  stall  anchors  should  be  made  first,  and  of 
a  very  rich  mixture,  for  strength.  The  spacing  should  be 
according  to  the  plan,  and  must  be  accurate.  As  the  concrete 
sets,  the  top  of  the  curb  is  smoothed  and  the  corners  finished. 
The  feed  and  fitter  alleys  are  made  next,  and  given  a  slight 
pitch  for  drainage.  The  standing  platform  is  made  to  receive 
the  stall  partitions.  If  cork  brick  or  wood  blocks  are  used,  the 
space  must  be  made  to  fit  them.  The  manger  and  gutter  are 
made  last. 

Feeding  Floors,  Pavements,  and  Walks. — Barnyard  pave- 
ments and  floors  may  be  made  in  one  course,  of  a  1  :  2  :  4 
mixture.  The  ground  should  be  well  drained,  to  avoid  mois- 
ture under  the  concrete.  Expansion  joints  should  be  provided 
at  intervals  of  about  10  feet  in  either  direction.  Sidewalks 
are  made  in  two  courses,  marked  into  squares  while  green,  and 

•  finished  with  edging  tools 
and  jointers.  The  side- 
walk is  usually  finished 
with  a  wood  float  or 
trowel. 

Foundations. — It    is 
often    possible    to    use 
Fig.  302.— Concrete  walk  construction.        the    earth    trench   as    a 

form  for  the  foundation. 
If  the  ground  is  very  dry  and  porous,  it  is  desirable  to  line 
the  trench  with  building  paper,  to  prevent  the  absorption  of 
water  from  the  concrete.     A  medium   or   lean   mixture    is 


)1w.iJ*Vi^ 


-  CO/I  C-RBTft  WALK-  OOMaXOCTlOJ^ • 


CONCRETE  CONSTRUCTION 


301 


satisfactory  for  foundations,  and  reinforcing  is  not  necessary 
if  the  foundation  is  carried  below  the  frost  hne  to  firm  soil. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  secure  a  foundation  that  is  level  and 
square.  Where  built-up  forms  are  necessary,  they  should  be 
braced,  and  tied  together  to  prevent  spreading. 

Walls. — Except  for  silos,  monolithic  walls  are  not  widely 
used  in  farm  buildings  above  the  foundation.  It  is  necessary 
to  make  barn  walls  10  inches  thick  and  the  smaller  buildings 
have  walls  6  to  10  inches  thick.  A  mixture  of  1:2:4  or 
1:2:3  should  be  used.  Reinforcing  is  necessary  around 
openings.  Double-wall  construction  is  preferable  to  the  single 
wall  for  stock  buildings.  The  problem  of  openings  in  the  con- 
crete wall  is  rather  difficult  of  solution,  and  considerable  experi- 
ence in  concrete  work  is  required  for  effective  results. 

Fence  Posts. — Concrete  posts  should  be  made  of  a  1  :  2  :  3 
concrete,  or  of  a  1:3  cement  and  sand  mixture.  The  rein- 
forcing used  is  four  i-inch  steel  bars  for  each  post,  one  in  each 
corner.  Corner  posts  should  be  built  in  place,  and  are  more 
heavily  reinforced.  Line 
posts  are  3  by  3  inches 
at  the  top,  and  5  by  5 
inches  at  the  bottom, 
and  7  feet  long.  Several 
shapes  are  in  use,  but 
the  ordinary  rectangular 
type  is  considered  the 
most  satisfactory.  Posts 
should  not  be  removed 
from  the  form  for  at  least   ^'"^  303.-Concrete  fence  post  molds,  home 

made, 
twenty-four  hours,   and 

cannot  be  used  for  thirty  days  or  more.  In  the  best  con- 
struction the  fence  is  fastened  to  the  post  by  a  loop  of  wire 
around  the  post. 

Cement  Blocks. — Because  of  the  difficulty  of  constructing 
monolithic  concrete  walls  on  the  farm,  the  cement  block  is  a 
popular  building  material,  especially  for  small  buildings.  The 
blocks  may  be  made  in  a  small  factory,  or  on  the  farm  at  any 


302 


CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE 


COy^CR-CnTE:  BLOCKS  •  IJ^  -WALL 


season  of  the  year  and  laid  up  in  a  manner  similar  to  hollow 
tile.     Blocks  should  be  made  of  a  1  :  3  mixture  of  cement  and 

sand,  and  of  a  dry  con- 
sistency. The  principal 
objection  to  the  block  is 
that  it  is  somewhat  por- 
ous, and  is  likely  to  allow 
the  passage  of  moisture 
through  the  wall. 

Cement  Staves. — The 
staves  are  a  patented 
cement  product  used 
principally  for  silo  con- 
struction, but  have 
found  some  use  in  re- 
placing  the  heavier 
The  cement  stave  is  discussed  in 


Fig.  304. — Concrete  block  wall  construc- 
tion. 


composition    of    Portland    cement 


blocks  in  small  buildings, 
Chapter  XVI. 

Cement  Stucco. — The 
stucco  is  1  part  cement, 
2|  parts  sand,  and  lime 
putty  equal  to  about 
one-third  the  volume 
of  the  cement.  Color- 
ing matter  may  be 
added  to  secure  desired 
shades.  Stucco  may  be 
applied  to  wood,  patent, 
or  metal  lath.  When 
placed  over  masonry  or 
sheathing,  the  lath 
must  be  furred  out  | 
inch,  in  order  to  allow     ^^«-  305.-Cement  stucco  over  clay  block. 

a  proper  bond.  The  wall  to  which  stucco  is  applied  must 
be  well  framed  and  braced  to  prevent  cracks  in  the  covering. 
The  more  common  stucco  finishes  are  smooth-troweled,  pebble- 
dash,  rough-cast,  sand-floated,  and  exposed  aggregates. 


STO  ceo  '  OVER-  CLAY  •  BLOCK  • 


CHAPTER  XXIX 
BRICK  AND  HOLLOW  BUILDING  TILE 

Brick  is  one  of  the  oldest  building  materials  of  the  perma- 
nent type.  Hollow  tile  is  similar  to  brick  in  composition.  The 
tile  are  molded  into  shapes  having  air  cells,  which  save  material 
and  weight  and  make  possible  the  manufacture  of  larger  units. 
Hollow  tile  form  dead  air  spaces  in  the  wall  when  laid.  The 
brick  and  tile  are  made  from  clay,  ground,  mixed,  molded,  and 
burned.  The  burning  consumes  all  organic  matter  and  fuses 
the  clay  into  a  hard,  solid  mass. 

Clays. — Clays  may  be  found  pure,  or  containing  impurities 
which  must  be  removed.  The  top  soil  is  stripped  off,  and  the 
clay  mined  and  dug,  after  which  the  stones  and  impurities  are 
removed,  and  the  manufacture  carried  on  by  machinery. 

Molding. — The  three  processes  of  molding  are  the  soft-mud, 
stiff-mud,  and  dry-clay  processes.  In  the  first,  about  one- 
fourth  volume  of  water  is  added.  In  the  second  the  mud  is 
made  stiff,  and  in  the  dry  process,  the  clay  as  it  comes  from  the 
pits  is  molded  under  high  pressure.  The  common  method  of 
molding  is  to  force  the  material  through  a  pug  mill  into  a  die, 
and  to  cut  the  pieces  to  length!  Another  method  is  to  force 
the  clay  into  molds. 

Drying  and  Burning. — The  blocks  or  brick  are  racked  and 
allowed  to  dry  in  an  open  shed.  They  are  then  burned  in 
kilns  from  six  to  fifteen  days,  depending  upon  the  character  of 
material,  fuel,  etc. 

Colors. — The  method  of  burning  and  the  composition  of 
the  clays  determine  the  color  of  the  brick.  Iron  produces 
tints  ranging  from  red  to  yellow.  Iron  oxide  gives  a  bright 
Ted.     Iron  and  lime  combined  give  a  cream  color,  varying 

303 


304  BRICK  AND  HOLLOW  BUILDING  TILE 

sometimes  from  red  to  brown.  Iron  with  magnesia  produces 
a  yellow  tint. 

Classification  of  Brick. — According  to  the  method  of  mold- 
ing, brick  are  classified  as  soft,  stiff-mud,  pressed,  repressed, 
and  sanded  brick.  Pressed  brick  are  made  by  the  dry-clay 
process,  while  repressed  brick  are  molded  from  soft  mud, 
partially  dried,  and  then  pressed  under  heavy  pressure.  Sanded 
brick  are  molded  from  soft  mud,  with  sand  sprinkled  in  the 
forms  or  molds. 

The  classes  according  to  the  burning  are  arch,  hard,  and 
soft  brick.  The  brick  which  form  the  sides  of  the  arch  in  which 
the  fire  is  built  are  overburned,  hard,  and  brittle.  The  hard- 
burned  brick,  or  those  on  the  inside  of  the  pile  in  the  kiln, 
called  cherry  or  body  brick,  are  the  best.  The  brick  on  the 
outside  of  the  pile  are  underburned,  soft,  light,  and  absorbent. 
They  are  used  for  fillers  and  backing.  They  are  often  termed 
salmon  brick. 

Brick  are  classed  as  to  form  and  use  into  face,  special,  and 
common  brick.  The  face  brick  are  used  for  exposed  surfaces, 
and  are  either  smooth,  either  pressed  or  enameled,  or  rough. 
Special  brick  are  made  for  special  purposes.  Common  brick 
are  sometimes  classed  separate  from  face  brick,  and  are  those 
ordinarily  used  for  chimneys,  piers,  etc. 

Size  and  Weight. — The  usual  size  of  brick  is  8  by  4  by 
2i  inches,  although  there  is  some  variation.  The  adopted 
standard  at  present  is  8|  by  4  by  2j  for  conomon  brick,  and 
Sf  by  4|  by  2f  inches  for  pressed  brick.  Bricks  weigh  from 
6  to  7  pounds  each  and  brick  masonry  weighs  125  to  150  pounds 
per  cubic  foot. 

Quality. — Bricks  are  classed  as  No.  1,  No.  2,  and  culls. 
Good  brick  should  be  hard,  uniform  in  shape,  color  and  hard- 
ness, free  from  warps,  cracks,  and  irregularity  in  the  edges. 

Mortar. — Mortar  is  a  pasty  material  used  to  bond  the 
bricks  into  a  solid  mass.  It  is  made  from  lime  or  cement, 
mixed  with  sand.  One  part  of  lime  to  4  parts  of  sand,  or  1 
part  cement  to  2,  3,  or  4  parts  of  sand  is  used.  Cement  mortar 
is  "  short  '^  and  hard  to  work,  but  is  stronger  than  lime  mortar, 


BRICKS  IN  WALL 


305 


and  should  be  used  in  damp  places,  below  grade,  or  where 
strength  is  required.  Lime  mortar  is  easy  to  work,  and  sticks 
well,  but  is  not  strong.  An  excellent  lime-tempered  mortar 
is  made  by  adding  lime  to  cement  mortar,  at  the  rate  of  10 
per  cent  by  volume.  For  decorative  purposes,  coloring  matter 
is  often  added  to  the  mortar.     The  tint  brings  out  the  joints, 


.•M-''-vivi!- 


- 

m-m 

STROC 

< 

STI?C» 

^ 

imm'  XI 


y:mi^ 


n^ 


STRIPPED  OXnCAVi      -ROOTTO 


•/mortar -jousts -1/1  brickwork- 
Fig.  306. 


and  is  used  much  in  presses  and  texture  work.     Too  much 
coloring  matter  weakens  the  mortar. 

Bricks  in  Wall. — Brick  are  laid  up  in  courses.  One  brick 
width  makes  a  4-inch  wall,  two  a  9-inch  wall,  with  an  increase 
of  4  inches  for  each  additional  brick.  Brick  are  laid  in  a  bed 
of  mortar,  and  their  ends  "  buttered  '*  or  covered  to  make  a 
tight  vertical  joint.  The  thickness  of  the  mortar  joint  varies 
from  I  inch  for  pressed  brick,  to  |  or  J  for  common  brick,  and 
I  to  f  for  texture  brick.  The  joint  is  finished  by  being  struck, 
weathered,  raked,  set  back,  rodded,  or  pointed.  ^  Pressed  brick 
require  a  struck,  • 
pointed,    or    rodded     ?S=5c=dc=§  ^^Qc=DSc9teEci 

.  -~-~ii  II — ~'T~   3C=ir — -|[ir]r If-  hi ir 

joint;  texture  brick  re-  ncsc^^^i E=3Qc=3Bca tsoc: 
quire  the  cut  or  raked 
joint;  while  the  com- 
mon brick  are  usually 
laid  with  the  cut  joint. 
Bonds. — Bricks  are 
bonded  for  designs  and 
for    strength    of    wall. 

Headers  are  brick  laid  crosswise  of  the  wall,  and  stretchers  are 
laid  along  the  wall.  There  are  five  bonds  used  in  laying  up  walls. 


CROSS  SVECIAU 

SO/tDS    in    ?^RlCKWORK 

Fig.  307. — Common  bonds  in  brick  work. 


806 


BRICK  AND  HOLLOW  BUILDING  TILE 


1.  Common  bond  consists  of  five  courses  of  stretchers 
and  one  course  of  headers. 

2.  Flemish    bond    consists    of    alternate    headers    and 

stretchers  in  the  course. 

3.  English   bond   has   alternate   rows   of   headers   and 
stretchers. 

4.  Cross  bond  consists  of  one  course  of  stretchers,  and 
one  course  of  Flemish  bond. 

5.  Diagonal  bond  consists  of  a  step  effect  in  the  vertical 
joints.     It  is  used  for  decorative  effect. 


CO-RTa06ATEJ  /nCTAL  CLIPPCD  OH  BU/IB  HEADERS 

-WALL   TIES- 

Fig.  308. — Common  forms  of  wall  ties. 


Wall  ties  are  often  used  to  tie  the  face  brick  to  the  back 
wall.  Metal  ties  consist  of  heavy  strips  of  corrugated  gal- 
vanized metal  about  f  inch  wide  and  not  less  than  8  inches 

long.  Chpped  or  blind 
headers  consist  of  bricks 
placed  diagonally  in  the 
wall.  The  inner  corners 
of  the  stretchers  are 
clipped  off  so  the  corner 
of  the  bonding  brick 
extends  into  the  sur- 
face course.  Clipped 
headers  are  placed  in  every  sixth  course. 

Points  in  Construction. — Brick  should'  be  kept  covered  and 
dry  in  cold  weather,  and  during  warm  weather  they  should  be 
wet  before  laying  in  the  waU.  The  top  of  the  wall  should  be 
covered  to  keep  off  rains.  The  wall  should  be  kept  nearly 
level  during  the  construction,  that  is,  it  should  be  built  to  about 
the  same  height  around  the  building,  as  cracks  are  formed  from 
settlement  where  new  wall  is  joined  to  the  old.  After  the  wall 
is  laid  and  has  settled,  it  should  be  washed  down  with  a  weak 
solution  of  muriatic  acid  to  remove  the  stains  from  the  surface, 
the  washing  being  begun  at  the  top  of  the  wall.  It  is  then 
washed  down  with  a  hose. 

Hollow  Building  Tile. — Tile  are  made  in  various  sizes, 
depending  upon  the  uses.     The  size  ranges  from  4  by  4  by  12 


WALL  TILE 


307 


rvavic-  «>aviE-     «-,a--iii-   sitavie*         «*<a-«ie>        aWais* 

•  CO  AX  At  O/t  •  STYLES-HOLLOW  •BOll-Cl/fG-Bl.OOKS- 

FiG.  309. — Common  styles  of  hollow  clay 
building  blocks. 


for  building  work,  to  12  by  12  by  15  inches  for  structural  work. 
Tile  are  classified  as  to  use,  into,  floor  and  reinforcing,  special, 
partition  and  wall,  and  curved  and  radial-cut  tile. 

Floor  and  Reinforcing  Tile. — These  tile  are  used  to  fill  in 
between  beams,  joists,  and  girders,  usually  as  fillers  to  reduce 
the  weight  of  the  con-     ^^— ,   ^-a/ — \\ — \  fr-\ 
struction.      In    long-    iJlV  fel/nTl  llli  \M  k^ 
span  floor  construction 
tile   cores  are  used  be- 
tween T-beams  to  save 
weight. 

Special  Tile. — Special  tile  are  usually  used  in  fireproofing, 
and  are  made  in  a  variety  of  shapes  to  protect  the  structural 
steel  from  fire.     They  are  not  used  in  farm  buildings. 

Wall  Tile. — These  tile  are  usually  5  by  8  by  12  inches,  laid 
in  either  a  5-  or  an  8-inch  wall.  Several  styles  may  be  secured 
in  the  wall  tile  for  exposed,  veneered,  or  stucco  walls.  The 
tile  are  graded  as  firsts  and  seconds,  the  latter  being  spawled, 
warped,  cracked,  or  underburned.  The  firsts  are  hard,  true, 
and  without  defects.  When  struck  with  a  hammer  they  have 
a  metallic  ring.     The  seconds  may  be  used  for  tile  floors. 

Tile  Floors. — Hollow  tile  are  laid  in  a  sand  cushion  1  inch 
thick,  over  a  cinder  or  gravel  fill  of  about  6  inches  depth. 
They  are  laid  close  together  and  tamped.  About  f  inch  of 
rich  cement  mortar  is  placed  over  them  and  allowed  to  fill  all 
holes   or   depressions   and   to   make   a   smooth  surface.     For 

poultry  house  and  hog 
house,  this  floor  is  very 
satisfactory.  For  heavy 
stock,  at  least  2  inches 
of  concrete  should  be 
used  over  the  tile.  The 
floor  should  be  given 
sufficient  slope  for  drain- 
age. The  value  of  this 
floor  is  that  the  dead  air  space  prevents  the  conduction  of 
cold  and  moisture  through  the  floor. 


•tlGHTI^CH*  •P-lVCinC.H* 

•HOLLOW-  CLAY  •  BIjOCK-  WALLS' 

Fig.  310. — Hollow  clay  block  walls. 


308 


BRICK  AND  HOLLOW  BUILDING  TILE 


-HOLLOW •  ©LOCK -WALL-  BRICK -TRftATM^AtT- 

Fig.  311. — Use  of  brick  with  blocks. 


Tile  in  Walls.— The  joints  in  the  tile  wall  vary  from  J  to 
inch  thick.     The  bed  joints  should  be  slushed,   then  the 

center  lifted  out  with 
trowel  and  the  cell  walls 
''  buttered  "  to  make 
a  tight  vertical  joint. 
After  the  tile  are  laid 
the  joints  should  be 
pointed  with  the  trowel 
to  insure  a  tight  joint. 
The  mortar  should  be 
a  lime-tempered  cement 
mortar. 

The  tile  3  and  4 
inches  thick  can  be  laid 
quite  easily,  as  the 
mason  can  hold  the 
tile  in  one  hand  while 
applying  the  mortar. 
The  principal  difficulty  in  laying  the  tile  wall  is  to  secure  a 
tight  vertical  joint,  as  the  thin  webs  make  it  difficult  to  secure 
a  good  bond.  The  three-cell  tile,  5  inches  or  more  thick  affords 
a  better  vertical  bond 
than  the  two-cell  tile. 
To  secure  a  good  build- 
ing it  is  necessary  to 
have  experienced  help 
to  lay  up  the  wall. 

Lintels  for  Tile  Wall. 
— Lintels  may  be  quickly 
made  on  the  job  by  join- 
ing two  or  more  tile,  end 
to  end,  placing  steel 
through  the  air  cells  for  reinforcing,  and  filUng  the  cells  with  a 
cement  mortar.  To  make  the  lintels,  a  stiff  plank  is  set  at  an 
angle  of  about  30°,  and  a  block  nailed  to  the  lower  end  of  the 
plank.     The  tile  are  rested  against  the  block  to  prevent  sHding, 


Rtin forcing    Bors 
Concnefc  pJaccd  i 
Hollow  Ti 


Z'aA.- 


BUILDiy^Q  •  HOLLOW-TlLt-L!/tTBL- 
Fig.  312. — Method  of  making  hollow  block 
lintels. 


SILO  TILE  309 

with  the  tile  laid  end  to  end,  to  make  the  required  length.  The 
steel  bar  should  be  placed  in  the  lower  cell,  and  held  away 
from  the  edge  of  the  tile  in  order  that  the  mortar  may  bond 
completely  with  the  steel.  It  is  best  to  tamp  the  mortar  around 
the  steel  in  the  two  lower  tile  first,  and  add  a  tile  at  a  time, 
tamping  the  mortar  into  the  cell  until  the  desired  length  is 
secured.  Lintels  of  this  type  may  be  used  for  all  single  doors  and 
windows.     For  wide  openings  a  reinforced  Untel  should  be  used. 

Closure  Tile. — Four-,  6-  and  8-  inch  tile  may  be  secured 
for  closure  tile.  The  8-inch  tile  laid  on  end  serves  as  the 
corner  tile.  Brick  are  sometimes  used  to  fill  in  the  corners. 
The  tile  should  be  laid  with  joints  broken,  and  are  usually 
laid  in  the  wall  as  stretchers 

Scored  Tile. — The  surface  of  the  tile  coming  in  contact 
with  the  bed  joint  is  often  scored,  or  roughened,  to  afford  a 
better  bond  with  the  mortar.  For  plastering  or  stuccoing 
directly  onto  the  tile,  the  surface  is  usually  scored. 

Silo  Tile. — The  use  of  tile  for  silos  and  round  or  curved 
buildings  has  led  to  the  development  of  the  curved  and  radially 
cut  tile,  which  fit  closely  at  the  ends,  and  form  a  smooth  wall. 
They  are  curved  at  the  time  they  are  made  by  forcing  the  soft 
form  from  the  mold  over  rollers. 

Silo  blocks  are  made  for  4-,  5-,  and  6-inch  walls.  The 
4-inch  wall  is  widely  used,  because  of  the  eaise  of  laying.  The 
5-inch  wall  permits  the  use  of  three-cell  tile. 

Absorption  of  Silo  Tile. — Since  the  silo  must  be  air  and 
water  tight,  and  because  of  the  danger  from  spawling  and 
crumbling  when  water  freezes  in  the  pores  of  the  tile,  it  is 
important  that  the  tile  have  a  low  absorption  test.  Blocks 
should  not  absorb  more  than  7  per  cent  moisture  when  immersed 
for  seventy-two  hours.  For  a  fair  test,  three  blocks  should 
be  tested.  They  are  first  dried  at  212°  until  they  no  longer 
lose  weight.  The  blocks  are  then  weighed  at  room  tempera- 
ture, immersed  for  seventy-two  hours,  then  wiped  dry  and 
weighed.  The  increase  weight  shall  be  considered  as  the 
absorption,  and  the  absorbed  weight,  divided  by  the  dry  weight 
gives  the  per  cent  of  absorption. 


310  BRICK  AND  HOLLOW  BUILDING  TILE 

In  place  of  immersing  for  seventy-two  hours,  they  may  be 
placed  in  rain  water  and  boiled  for  five  hours,  cooled,  and 
dried.  Otherwise  the  test  is  the  same  as  described  above. 
The  absorption  in  this  test  should  not  exceed  9  per  cent. 

Glazed  Tile. — Glazing  improves  the  appearance  of  tile, 
and  makes  the  surface  more  impervious  to  moisture.  The 
salt-glazed  tile  is  not  necessarily  stronger  than  the  unglazed. 
All  tile  for  silos  or  other  buildings  should  be  hard  burned, 
of  a  uniform  color,  and  free  from  lime  spalls  and  cracks. 

Other  Uses  for  Curved  Tile. — Tanks,  grain  bins,  milk 
houses,  and  other  small  buildings  are  now  made  from  silo 
tile,  in  round  or  curved  shapes. 

Use  of  Stone  in  Farm  Buildings. — The  use  of  stone  in  farm 
structural  work  is  Hmited,  and  no  discussion  is  given  in  this 
text.  For  practical  purposes,  concrete,  brick,  and  tile  are 
fully  as  economical,  and  are  more  easily  handled.  Where 
stone  is  abundant,  it  may  be  used  for  foundations  and  lower 
walls.  The  appearance  of  rough  stone  is  favored  by  many 
for  house  and  porch  foundations.  For  walls,  the  stone  should 
be  laid  in  cement  mortar  and  the  wall  made  16  to  30  inches  thick. 


CHAPTER  XXX 
MECHANICS   OF  FARM  BUILDINGS 

For  economy  of  construction,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
different  members  of  the  building  be  strong  enough  to  with- 
stand the  strains  put  upon  them,  and  yet  not  be  excessively 
heavy.  More  material  than  is  necessary  is  wasteful,  both 
in  the  material  itseK  and  labor.  Most  of  the  framing  members 
of  the  various  farm  buildings  have  been  figured  theoretically, 
and  tested  in  common  practice  sufficiently  to  enable  the  pro- 
gressive farmer  or  builder  to  secure  strength  and  economy. 
This  method  of  following  common  usage  is  called  "  standard 
practice." 

In  some  cases,  as  in  the  timber  frame  barn,  the  common 
practice  has  been  to  use  heavy  timbers  and  more  bracing  than 
is  called  for  by  the  needs  of  the  building.  Then  there  are 
certain  problems,  such  as  reinforced  concrete  work  and  silo 
construction,  that  should  be  figured  by  a  competent  engineer 
if  best  results  are  to  be  secured. 

It  is  not  possible  here  to  discuss  the  subject  of  mechanics 
in  detail.  Rather,  it  is  intended  to  consider  the  more  common 
problems  and  essential  definitions  to  enable  the  reader  to 
understand  the  mechanics  of  the  farm  buildings. 

Definitions. — The  following  definitions  should  be  fully 
understood : 

Stress. — The  force  within  a  body  which  tends  to  resist 
deformation. 

Strain. — The  deformation  produced  in  a  body  by  reason 
of  internal  or  external  stresses.  The  four  kinds  of  stresses 
which  produce  strain  are  (1)  tensile  stress,  which  tends  to  pull 
the  fibers  or  stretch  a  body;   (2)  compressive  stress,  tending  to 

311 


312  MECHANICS  OF  FARM  BUILDINGS 

crush  the  fibers;  (3)  shearing  stresses,  tending  to  slide  one 
particle  or  fiber  over  another;  and  (4)  transverse  or  bending 
stresses,  tending  to  break  or  bend  a  structural  member  across 
the  grain. 

Ultimate  Strength. — Equivalent  to  a  load  just  sufficient 
to  cause  failure  in  the  member. 

Safe  Load. — Load  which  may  be  applied  without  danger  of 
breaking,  or  undue  strains.  It  is  only  a  fraction  of  the  breaking 
load. 

Factor  of  Safety. — Ratio  of  the  safe  load  to  the  ultimate 
strength  or  breaking  load.  The  factor  of  safety  of  steel  is 
4.  The  breaking  load  is  about  60,000  pounds  per  square  inch, 
and  the  safe  load  is  taken  as  15,000  to  16,000. 

Moment  of  Inertia. — A  property  of  a  structural  member 
involving  the  depth  and  width,  and  which  determines  its 
abiUty  to  resist  stresses.  It  is  designated  by  /  and  is  equal 
to  iV  bd^)  where  h  is  the  width  and  d  the  depth. 

Section  Modulus. — Equivalent  to  the  Moment  of  Inertia 
divided  by  the  distance  from  the  neutral  axis  to  the  '*  outer 
fiber,"  or,  in  rectangular  beams,  since  the  neutral  axis  is  at 
the  center,  the  distance  is  ^d,  and  the  formula  is  Y^hd^  over 
id,  or  ihd^. 

Beam. — A    horizontal    body,    resting    on    supports,    and 

loaded  to  produce  trans- 

P E  ^w.u  IN*  I  I  U.U      verse  stresses.    A  simple 

te  1  beam   is    supported   at 

Conccn+^f.d  Load  On.Torm  Lood  ^g^^j^  ^^^       ^  COntinUOUS 

beam  has  three  or  more 

gP  __^y;^ri7r-rrTl  l^   f^PP^f  •     a  cantUever 

L  A  k~  3    "®^"^  ^^^  ^^^  ^^^  fixed, 

and  the  other  overhang- 
ing the   support.     Dis- 
YiQ  313  tance  between  supports 

is  called  the  span. 
Loadings. — Beams  are  uniformly  loaded,   when  the  load 
is  evenly  distributed  along  the  entire  beam,  between  supports. 
Concentrated  loads  are  applied  at  one  point,  usually  the  center. 


Conccnirofed    I.000I       Oniferm  Load 


MOMENT  313 

Live  loads  are  those  suddenly  applied,  as  in  the  case  of  a  car 
driven  over  a  bridge.  Dead  loads  are  those  applied  gradually, 
and  which  remain  at  rest.  Live  loads  require  a  design  to  bear 
twice  as  much  load  as  if  the  load  were  apphed  gradually. 

Moment. — Moment  is  the  tendency  of  a  body  to  rotate 
about  a  fixed  point.  It  is  equivalent  to  the  product  of  the 
force  times    the  distance  -^  x  . 

from  the  fixed  point.     In  I  til  i  i  I  t  I  I  I  I  1  1  I 


-  CO/1  Tl-rt  OUS  •  B  E  A  Al  • 
UO  AP  •  O/^  I  "PO-RM  LY- DISTRIBOTED' 

Fig.  314. 


a  cantilever  beam  4  feet 
long  and  bearing  a  load 
at  the  end  of  100  pounds, 
the  moment  is  400  foot- 
pounds. In  building  con- 
struction the  sum  of  the  moments  about  any  point  must  be 
equal.  It  follows  that  if  the  beam  is  able  to  support  a  given 
load,  there  must  be  internal  resisting  forces  to  neutrahze  the 
external  moments. 

Reactions. — A  reaction  is  the  force  that  must  act  upward, 
as  in  the  beam  support,  to  carry  the  weight  of  the  member 
and  the  load.     If  the  load  is  uniformly  distributed  or  at  the 

center,  the  reactions  at 
^////////^//^/^^^^^  HbH    each    support    will    be 

"T   equal.     If  the  load   is 
*        not   uniform,  the  mo- 


R. 


L/e H 


R 


"R,  -  w/2  ;   "Rg-  w/2  ments  are  taken  about 

ShTor"  o^=*^c':"#.'^tC^^o^^  o^^  point,  and  knowing 

Stofion  Aiodoioa-  ^ibd?  the    distance    between 

^^^ ^^ , supports,  there   is   but 

"  un  I  l^OR^  L Y^  LO  AD tD  -  ^^^  unknown  quantity, 

Fig.  315.  namely,  the  reaction  at 

the   opposite    support, 

which  can  be  solved  algebraically.    When  the  reaction  opposite 

to  the  support  used  as  the  center  of  moments  is  found,  the 

total  load  minus  the  one  reaction  will  give  the  other. 

Shear. — The  loads  on  a  beam,  and  the  upward  reactions 
at  the  supports  tend  to  shde  the  particles  within  the  beam, 
vertically.     At  any  point  in  a  beam  the  shear  is  equal  to 


314  MECHANICS  OF  FARM  BUILDINGS 

either  reaction  minus  the  loads  between  the  reaction  and  the 
point  considered.  If  a  simple  beam  is  considered,  with  a 
uniform  load,  the  shear  will  be  greatest  at  the  support  which 
is  equal  to  the  reaction,  and  the  shear  is  zero  at  the  center  of 
the  beam. 

Bending  Moment. — Bending  moment  is  the  tendency  to  pro- 
duce bending  at  any  point  in  a  beam.  It  is  equal  to  the 
algebraic  sum  of  all  the  moments  of  the  external  forces  on 
one  side  of  any  given  point  in  the  beam.  If  the  moments 
are  computed  about  several  points,  it  will  be  found  that  the 
maximum  moment  occurs  at  the  point  where  the  shear  is 
zero,  or  at  the  center  of  the  uniformly  loaded  beam.  The 
maximum  moment  must  be  considered  in  the  design  of 
beams. 

Safe  Bending  Stresses. — The  safe  stress  in  bending  is  given 
in  pounds  per  square  inch  for  the  material  considered.  A 
table  of  safe  stresses  is  given  on  page  362.  A  member  sub- 
jected to  bending  stresses  is  in  tension  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
body,  and  in  compression  on  the  upper  side  where  the  load 
is  appHed.  The  Hne  through  which  there  is  neither  compres- 
sion or  tension  is  called  the  neutral  axis,  and  is  taken  as  being 
at  the  center  of  a  rectangular  beam. 

Internal  Resisting  Stresses. — The  strength  of  a  beam 
depends  upon  both  the  material  and  the  shape.  The  resistance 
to  external  forces  must  be  sufficient  to  provide  equihbrium. 
The  resisting  moment  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  moments 
of  all  forces  acting  about  the  neutral  axis.     The  safe  resisting 

moment    is    equal    to    the    section 
modulus  times  the  safe  fiber  stress 
i^«^froi      for  the  material. 
-rAxlo  Design  of  Beams. — For  equilib- 

rium   the   maximum   bending    mo- 


T 


•PECTA/lQOLAR-BfiA/n-    ^^^*  must  be  equal  to  the  internal 

J,      QIC  stresses.     Therefore,  M=Qs,  where 

M  is  the  maximum   moment,  Q  is 

the  section  modulus,  and  s  is  the  safe  stress   per  square  inch 

of    material.     For  rectangular  beams,  Q  =  ihd^.     The  values 


VALUE  OF  MAXIMUM  MOMENT 


315 


•  rdcR*. 


for  ilf  and  s  for   various  materials    and  loadings  are   given 
in  Chapter  XXXVIII. 

Value  of  Maximum  Moment — The  value  of  the  greatest 
bending  moment  is  determined  by  taking  the  moments  about 
the  point  where  the  shear  is  zero.  This  is  in  the  center  of  a 
beam  with  uniform  load.  If  W  is  used  to  represent  the  total 
load,  L  the  span,  and  the  moments  added  algebriacally,  the 
following  results  will  be  secured: 

M  =  ^WL  for  simple  beam,  distributed  load; 

M  =  \WL  for  simple  beam,  load  at  center; 

M  =  \WL  for  cantilever  beam,  uniform  distributed  load; 

M=   WL  for  cantilever  beam,  load  at  end. 

Columns. — The  columns  or  posts  used  in  farm  buildings 
are  of  wood,  cast  iron,  and  steel, 
filled  with  concrete.  In  Chapter 
XXXVIII  will  be  found  figures  for 
the  safe  load  in  tons  for  various 
lengths,  materials,  and  sizes.  The 
external  load  on  any  column  can  be 
figured  quite  accurately,  by  including 
the  weight  of  the  construction,  dead 
load,  and  wind  load  or  live  load 
likely  to  be  placed  on  any  given  sup- 
port. The  design  of  columns  will 
not  be  discussed  here.  If  the  reader 
is  further  interested  he  is  referred  to 
a  handbook  on  the  building  trades  or  to  a  text  book  on. 
Mechanics. 

Roof  Trusses. — The  technical  student  should  understand 
how  to  determine  the  various  loads  on  roof  trusses  and  the 
design  of  the  more  common  types  of  roof  trusses.  The  subject 
is  covered  fully  in  textbooks  of  Engineering  Mechanics,  and 
the  reader  is  referred  to  them  for  a  full  discussion.  The  non- 
technical reader  will  usually  wish  to  follow  standard  practice 
in  roof  construction. 


STE-E-L 


/rooting 


WOOD 

FiG.  317. 


CHAPTER  XXXI 
BUILDING   CODES  AND   FIRE  PREVENTION 

The  fire  loss  in  the  United  States  amounts  to  hundreds  of 
millions  annually.  The  number  of  buildings  destroyed  in 
one  year  would  be  equivalent  to  a  built-up  street  extending 
from  New  York  to  Chicago.  Loss  by  fire,  even  though  covered 
by  insurance,  represents  an  economic  loss,  requiring  time  and 
money  to  replace.  Loss  of  valuable  live-stock  by  fire  is  a 
serious  problem,  and  the  loss  in  human  life  cannot  be  replaced. 

Fire  loss  is  due,  in  a  majority  of  cases,  to  cheap  or  flimsy 
construction,  carelessness  with  matches,  accumulation  of  waste 
about  the  buildings,  defective  chimneys,  and  hghtning.  The 
various  building  commissions,  insurance  commissions  and  state 
fire  marshals  are  constantly  working  to  reduce  the  fire  hazard. 

Fire  prevention  on  the  farm  is  especially  important,  since 
the  means  for  protection  are  usually  inadequate,  and  pre- 
vention is  better  than  the  cure  in  this  case. 

Building  Codes. — The  State  or  municipal  building  code 
is  a  set  of  local  laws  pertaining  to  the  construction  of  build- 
ings within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  territory  governed.  The 
building  codes  govern  the  sanitary  conditions,  limit  fire  dis- 
tricts, estabUsh  a  standard  of  workmanship  consistent  with 
the  best  practice,  and  promote  character,  permanence,  and 
esthetic  principles  in  building  construction.  Although  the 
building  code  is  not  enforceable  outside  the  territory  to  which 
it  applies,  the  codes  usually  follow  the  fine  of  best  practice, 
and  the  study  of  State  or  local  codes  will  afford  much  infor- 
mation of  value  in  a  study  of  farm  buildings.  Such  a  code 
can  usually  be  secured  by  addressing  the  State  Building 
Commission  of  the  State  in  which  the  reader  resides.  The 
National    Board    of    Fire    Underwriters    of    New   York  have 

316 


FIRE  PROTECTION  ON  THE  FARM  317 

adopted  codes  or  rules  for  the  installation  of  wiring,  heating, 
and  lightning  protection,  chimney  construction,  storage  of 
fuel  oils,  etc.,  which  should  be  followed  to  the  letter.  The 
codes  are  the  result  of  investigation  over  the  entire  country 
and  a  study  of  the  causes  of  fires.  A  material  reduction  of 
insurance  premiums  is  often  secured,  if  the  code  suggestions 
are  followed. 

Space  does  not  permit  of  a  full  discussion  of  building 
codes.  In  cities  and  towns,  the  local  laws  must  be  followed. 
In  the  country  it  is  desirable  to  follow  the  codes  as  nearly 
as  possible,  especially  with  regard  to  fire  protection,  sanitary 
conditions,  and  equipment  and  strength  of  materials. 

Fire  Protection  on  the  Farm. — The  prevention  of  loss  by 
fire  on  the  farm  may  be  considered  under  the  headings  of  fire 
protection,  fire-resisting  construction,  lightning  protection; 
and  prevention  by  safe  construction  and  carefulness. 

Fire  Protection. — A  supply  of  water  under  pressure  affords 
an  excellent  fire  protection.  The  average  farm  is  not  within 
reach  of  outside  fire  protection,  and  a  supply  of  water  on  the 
farm  will  often  be  the  means  of  stopping  the  fire  before  it  has 
gained  headway.  Small  fire  extinguishers  filled  with  chemicals 
may  be  located  in  the  garage,  house,  and  barn,  and  a  small 
blaze  may  be  extinguished  without  having  caused  much 
damage.  The  location  of  buildings  some  distance  apart  may 
prevent  the  spread  of  the  fire  to  more  than  one  structure. 

Fire-resisting  Construction. — The  term  "  fireproof "  is 
often  misused.  A  very  few  materials,  including  burnt  clay, 
brick,  concrete,  and  plaster,  are  fireproof.  In  any  building 
the  wood  parts,  furnishings,  trim,  etc.,  are  combustible. 
Other  materials  are  fire-resisting,  but  not  absolutely  fireproof. 

The  use  of  hollow  tile  and  concrete  in  wall  construction, 
concrete  floors  and  steel  equipment  in  the  barns  will  reduce 
the  fire  hazard.  Garages  and  smokehouses  should  be  made 
as  nearly  complete  as  possible  of  masonry.  Most  of  the  fires 
from  gasoline  and  oils,  carelessness  with  matches,  and  small 
fires  in  the  yard  might  be  prevented  by  the  use  of  masonry 
in  the  lower  walls  of  the  buildings. 


318 


BUILDING  CODES  AND  FIRE  PREVENTION 


Some  attention  has  been 
given  to  the  possibihty  of  fire- 
proofing  the  dairy  and  horse 
barn,  because  of  the  value  of  the 
stock.  The  complete  masonry 
building  is  costly  to  build,  and 
difficult  of  construction.  A  large 
loft  filled  with  hay  burns  with 
an  intense  heat,  which  makes 
the  use  of  steel  frames  or  trusses 
ineffective  for  fireproofing.  The 
authors  beheve  that  the  best 
method  of  making  the  barn  fire- 
resisting  is  to  make  the  stable 
walls  of  concrete  or  hollow  tile, 
and  to  use  a  reinforced  loft  floor. 
This  would  largely  prevent  the 
start  of  fires,  and  should  the  top 
of  the  structure  burn,  the  lower 
masonry  part  would  retard  or 
stop  the  fire  sufficiently  so  that 
the  stock  could  be  removed. 

Lightning  Protection. — Fig- 
ures on  lightning  losses  which 
have  been  compiled  show  that 
the  annual  property  loss  from 
lightning  is  about  8  million  dol- 
lars, and  the  losses  are  chiefly 
in  rural  districts.  More  than 
500  persons  are  killed  by  hght- 
ning  each  year.  The  protection 
of  buildings  fromhghtning  losses 
consists  of  lightning-rod  equip- 
ment, of  the  correct  type  and 
properly  installed.  Many  fraud- 
ulent operations  and  inefficient 
outfits  sold  have  often  preju- 


SAFE  CONSTRUCTION  AND  CAREFULNESS  319 

diced  owners  against  the  lightning  rod.  Honest  manufacturers 
and  rehable  equipment  have  demonstrated  the  value  of  pro- 
tection. Investigations  show  that  very  few  buildings  properly 
rodded  are  damaged  by  lightning.  In  many  States  the  rods 
appear  to  be  more  than  95  per  cent  efficient. 

Lightning-rod  Equipment. — The  important  parts  of  the 
rod  equipment  are  the  air  terminals,  rods  or  conductors,  and 
the  ground  connections.  Air  terminals  should  be  attached 
to  all  high  points  such  as  cupolas,  spires,  and  chimneys,  the 
distance  between  terminals  along  ridges  not  exceeding  25 
feet.  Two  rods  or  paths  from  each  terminal  are  preferable. 
The  rods  for  best  construction  are  twisted  wire  cable,  or  star- 
section  iron  rod,  and  need  not  be  insulated  from  the  building. 
The  ground  is  made  by  extending  the  iron  or  copper  rod  8 
or  10  feet  into  the  ground  to  permanently  moist  soil. 

Safe  Construction  and  Carefulness. — One  of  the  most 
common  sources  of  fire  is  the  defective  chimney.  There  should 
be  only  one  smokepipe  entering  each  flue.  Brick  should  not  be 
laid  on  edge,  but  flat.  Terra-cotta  tile  flue  finings,  protected 
by  brick,  should  be  used.  Chimneys  are  supported  by  a 
masonry  foundation.  No  wood  framing  should  be  built  into 
the  chimney,  and  all  headers  or  openings  should  be  framed  so 
the  wood  members  do  not  come  within  2  inches  of  the  chimney. 
Smokepipes  should  enter  the  chimney  horizontally,  and  through 
a  tight  metal  or  tile  thimble.  The  chimney  should  be  built  at 
least  2  feet  above  the  ridge  of  the  roof. 

Fires  in  the  outbuildings  can  be  traced  usually  to  care- 
lessness with  matches,  gasofine,  or  engines  using  steam  or 
explosive  fuels.  Gasoline  engines  or  steam  boilers  should  not 
be  operated  in  the  barn.  Open  flames  must  be  kept  away  from 
the  barn  as  far  as  possible.  Oily  rags  and  waste  in  the  garage 
and  shop  should  be  kept  covered  in  metal  cans,  and  disposed  of 
frequently.  Waste  saturated  with  finseed  oil  will  ignite  by 
spontaneous  combustion  in  a  short  time.  Spontaneous  com- 
bustion in  damp  or  green  hay,  or  in  damp  coal  is  a  frequent 
cause  of  fires. 


CHAPTER  XXXII 
CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

In  order  properly  to  perform  a  piece  of  work  in  which  several 
persons  are  interested,  it  is  necessary  to  have  some  agreement, 
either  verbal,  written,  or  implied,  relating  to  the  natm*e  of  the 
work,  materials  used,  workmanship,  and  the  compensation. 

In  building  work  the  contract,  covering  the  compensation, 
time  of  completion,  nature  of  the  work,  etc.,  constitutes  only  a 
part  of  the  contract.  The  blue-print  plans  and  the  written 
specifications  are  usually  made  a  part  of  the  contract.  Printed 
contract  forms  for  building  are  available  at  the  office  of  every 
architect  and  builder.  These  contracts  comply  with  the  legal 
requirements,  and  are  a  standard  form. 

On  small  buildings  it  may  be  possible  to  include  on  the 
drawings  sufficient  notes  and  explanations  to  specify  the 
kind,  grade,  and  quality  of  material  and  workmanship.  For 
houses  or  barns,  the  plans  are  accompanied  by  a  typewritten 
set  of  specifications.  The  specifications  cover  the  general  con- 
ditions, including  the  various  items  in  the  scope  of  the  work, 
method  of  handling  the  contract,  and  the  quahty  and  kind  of 
material  and  the  grade  of  workmanship  expected  on  the  job. 
The  specific  statements  follow  the  general  specifications,  cov- 
ering the  material  and  methods  for  each  subdivision  of  the  work 
or  each  part  of  the  construction. 

Method  of  Writing  Specifications. — The  writer  of  specifica- 
tions should  have  a  definite  order  of  writing.  The  general 
clauses  should  be  written  first.  The  writer  should  be  famihar 
with  the  general  practices  in  construction  in  the  locality,  local 
codes,  and  customs.  He  must  also  be  familiar  with  the  plans 
and  should  know,  in  a  general  way,  the  comparative  cost  of  the 

320 


GENERAL  CONDITIONS  321 

building.  Local  sizes  and  available  grades  of  material  should  be 
determined.  The  specification  writer  should  know  the  methods 
of  handUng  work  such  as  concrete  work,  painting,  plumbing,  etc. 
Specifications  should  cover  the  items  of  material  and  work- 
manship completely,  in  clear,  concise,  and  definite  wording. 
No  points  should  be  left  to  the  imagination,  and  no  clause 
should  allow  for  a  difference  of  opinion  between  interested 
parties. 

General  Conditions 

This  section  of  the  specifications  covers  all  points  of  a 
general  nature  necessary  for  the  submission  of  the  bids  and  the 
completion  of  the  work  in  a  satisfactory  manner.  Each  of  the 
common  sections  of  the  general  conditions  will  be  mentioned 
briefly  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

Bids. — This  part  includes  a  statement  of  where,  when,  and 
how  the  bids  are  to  be  received,  when  opened,  possible  alternates, 
right  of  rejection,  amount  of  deposit,  and  bond. 

Time  of  Completion. — Date  on  which  work  is  to  be  com- 
pleted, and  forfeit  for  non-completion  on  specified  date. 

Rights  Reserved. — The  right  to  reject  inferior  materials, 
to  waive  proposals,  or  to  require  the  removal  of  objectionable 
workmen  from  the  job,  is  included  in  many  specifications. 

Local  Laws. — This  part  of  the  specification  calls  the  atten- 
tion of  the  bidder  to  local  rules  and  requirements  that  must 
be  met,  and  laws  regarding  liens  for  labor  and  material  pay- 
ments. 

Payments. — State  laws  regulate  payments  for  work  done; 
or  a  mutual  understanding  regarding  payment  should  be  spe- 
cified, to  protect  builder  and  owner. 

Insurance. — Owner  or  contractor  pays  for  insurance  on 
building  during  the  course  of  construction.  Usually  the 
builder  carries  the  insurance  until  the  work  is  accepted. 

Names. — The  owner  is  the  person  or  firm  for  which  the 
work  is  done;  the  architect  is  the  professional  designer  who 
prepares  the  plans,  and  acts  as  agent  for  the  owner  in  letting 
the  contract,  and  in  handling  the  building  project.     The  super- 


322  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

intendent  looks  after  the  interests  of  the  owner  and  architect. 
The  contractor  is  responsible  for  doing  the  work. 

Delays. — Every  effort  should  be  made  to  avoid  delays. 

Guarantee. — Some  parts  of  the  building,  such  as  the  roof, 
plumbing,  heating  plant,  etc.,  should  be  guaranteed  against 
defects  for  a  certain  length  of  time. 

Similar  or  Equal. — The  use  of  this  term  makes  it  possible 
to  use  one  of  several  kinds  of  material  or  equipment,  providing 
the  minimum  requirements  are  met. 

Drawings. — The  specifications  refer  to  definite  sets  of 
drawings  and  to  certain  sheets.  Each  sheet  and  drawing 
should  be  numbered,  so  there  wiU  be  no  question  as  to  the 
reference. 

Details. — There  may  be  need  of  full-size  or  large  scale  draw- 
ings for  special  construction.  Details  take  precedent  over  the 
working  drawings  in  case  of  discrepancy. 

Alterations. — Alterations  or  extras  should  be  cared  for  in 
the  specifications,  to  avoid  unreasonable  charges.  All  changes 
should  be  agreed  to  in  writing,  and  so  far  as  possible,  unit  prices 
established  for  extra  work. 

Workmanship. — The  quahty  of  the  work  should  be  main- 
tained, and  no  contractor  should  employ  unskilled  or  disrep- 
utable workmen. 

Materials. — All  materials  for  the  completion  of  the  work 
should  be  included,  and  the  kind  and  quahty  should  be  men- 
tioned. The  grades,  such  as  *'  No.  1,"  or  ''  clear  "  should  be 
definitely  mentioned. 

Rejected  Materials. — All  materials  rejected  by  the  super- 
intendent should  be  removed  from  the  premises  at  once. 

Protection. — Enclosed  openings,  protection  for  the  pubhc, 
danger  signals,  and  protection  of  trees  and  planting  are  a  part 
of  the  contract. 

Damage. — The  contractor  should  be  made  liable  for  damage 
or  injury  to  workmen  incurred  by  carelessness  or  neglect  on 
his  part. 

Scaffolding. — The  contractor  must  furnish  all  scaffolding, 
machinery,  and  equipment  for  handhng  the  work. 


SPECIFICATIONS  BY  SECTIONS  323 

Temporary  Heat. — Heat  to  dry  plastering,  protect  pipes, 
or  to  cure  green  concrete  should  be  furnished  by  the  contractor. 

Cleaning  Up. — The  contractor  should  clean  the  premises 
and  leave  the  building  broom  clean  before  the  work  is  accepted. 

Temporary  Privy. — The  contractor  should  provide  toilet 
facilities  for  the  men,  keeping  it  in  a  sanitary  condition. 

Surveys  and  Levels. — This  service  should  be  provided  by 
the  contractor,  unless  otherwise  stated. 

Water. — The  contractor  should  provide  water  for  the  needs 
of  the  construction. 

Site. — The  contractor  is  responsible  for  following  local 
conditions  and  laws  regarding  the  building,  and  should  visit 
the  site  before  bidding 

Specification  by  Sections 

Frequently  the  separate  parts  of  the  work  are  sublet, 
or  let  directly  to  specialty  contractors.  In  each  case  the  sep- 
arate contractors  are  bound  by  the  general  conditions,  and  in 
the  case  of  subcontractors,  the  general  contractor  is  responsible 
for  the  satisfactory  completion  of  the  work  so  let. 

All  divisions  of  the  contract,  whether  handled  by  one  or 
several  men,  should  be  in  harmony  with  the  general  conditions, 
and  equal  quaUty  of  work  should  be  done  throughout.  The 
several  special  contractors  should  work  to  best  advantage  with 
each  other  and  each  contractor  should  see  that  his  work  is  done 
at  the  logical  time,  with  the  least  possible  interference  to  the 
rapid  construction. 

The  specifications  are  divided  in  much  the  same  way  that 
the  building  is  divided  in  the  construction,  and  in  the  order 
that  the  estimates  are  made.     (See  next  chapter.) 

Excavation. — This  section  covers  the  setting  of  corners 
and  batter  boards,  removal  and  care  of  top  soil  and  subsoil, 
excavation  for  trenches  and  drains,  and  the  back  filling  and  final 
grading. 

Foundation. — This  includes  the  testing  and  storage  of 
cement,  securing  of  the  sand  and  coarse  aggregate,  proportion- 


324  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

ing,  mixing,  placing,  reinforcing,  and  finishing  of  the  con- 
crete. All  points  as  to  the  quality,  methods,  and  care  should  be 
definitely  covered. 

Concrete  Floor. — The  mixture,  manner  of  laying,  courses, 
slopes,  and  finish  are  included  in  the  specifications. 

Masonry. — This  should  include  the  specifications  for  all 
masonry  outside  the  foundation  and  floors.  Brick,  chimneys, 
stone,  masonry  trim,  mortars,  etc.,  should  be  mentioned. 

Carpentry. — All  rough  lumber,  the  cutting,  nailing,  fitting 
in  place,  grades,  and  quality  are  included  in  the  section  on 
carpentry. 

Millwork. — This  includes  all  materials  and  parts  not  made 
on  the  job.  Finish  lumber,  windows,  doors,  frames,  and  out- 
side trim  should  be  specified. 

Roof. — The  type  and  kind  as  well  as  the  quality  of  the 
roofing  and  possibly  the  trade  name  are  included  in  this  section. 

Hardware. — Both  the  rough,  or  builder's  hardware,  and  the 
finish  hardware  are  included.  The  finish,  quahty,  and  pattern 
should  be  mentioned.  In  some  cases  the  owner  buys  the 
hardware  needed  for  trim,  and  the  contractor  sets  it  in  place. 

Painting  and  Glazing. — Paints,  oils,  tints,  and  the  mixing 
and  application  are  covered.  The  manner  of  fixing  glass  in  the 
frame  is  also  mentioned. 

Lath  and  Plaster. — Lath  includes  the  kind  and  manner  of 
breaking  joints  and  applying.  Setting  of  grounds,  and  the 
kind  of  plaster,  number  of  coats,  and  the  application  are 
included. 

Wiring. — Switches,  insulation,  circuits,  signals,  outlets, 
size  of  wire,  soldering,  and  the  fixtures  should  be  specified. 

Plumbing. — The  rough  plumbing  should  be  covered  as  to 
size,  kind,  and  quahty.  Connections,  supply,  outlets,  and 
cleanouts  are  indicated.  The  name,  size,  and  finish  of  the 
finish  plumbing  are  also  covered. 

Heating. — The  location  of  boiler  or  furnace,  kind  of  con- 
ductors, radiators  or  registers,  sizes,  and  the  complete  layout 
and  guarantee  of  the  system  is  necessary  in  the  heating  spec- 
ification. 


SPECIFICATION  BY  SECTIONS  325 

Suggestions. — No  sample  specifications  are  included  here 
for  the  reason  that  each  building  requires  separate  specifications, 
and  copying  is  not  advocated.  If  each  of  the  above  points  are 
covered  in  a  definite  manner,  with  clear  wording  as  to  the  kinds, 
and  quality  of  material  and  workmanship,  the  results  should 
be  satisfactory.  The  reader  can  secure  a  stock  set  of  specifica- 
tions from  any  architect  or  builder  for  reference.  It  must  be 
remembered,  however,  that  there  are  points  about  each  building 
that  are  not  covered  in  stock  specifications. 

Contracts. — The  contract  is  a  legal  form,  and  the  average 
reader  can  acquire  only  a  general  understanding  of  the  contract, 
by  a  study  of  contracts  in  effect.  Laws  govern  contracts  in 
most  States,  and  standard  forms,  which  are  fair  and  legally 
binding,  may  be  secured. 

The  architect's  drawings  and  the  written  specifications  are 
a  part  of  the  building  contract.  In  general,  the  contract  speci- 
fies the  duties  of  each  party,  together  with  their  responsibility 
and  the  amount  and  manner  of  payment. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 
COST  ESTIMATING 

The  cost  of  the  building  is  the  most  interesting  and  one  of 
the  most  difficult  questions  that  confronts  the  prospective 
builder.  The  student  should  not  attempt  to  estimate  costs 
without  knowing  all  of  the  conditions  affecting  the  cost. 

Conditions  Affecting  Costs. — The  cost  of  the  same  type  of 
structure  will  vary  greatly  with  local  and  national  conditions. 
Companies  furnishing  plans  for  different  sections  of  the  country 
usually  refuse  to  estimate  the  cost,  unless  they  are  fully  famihar 
with  conditions  where  the  building  is  to  be  constructed.  The 
season  of  the  year  is  important  because  the  contractor  usually 
has  plenty  of  work  in  the  spring  and  in  the  fall.  In  slack 
seasons  he  may  be  wilUng  to  reduce  his  profit  to  keep  men  and 
machinery  busy.  Winter  work  involves  lost  time,  artificial 
heat,  and  protection  to  the  work,  which  tends  to  increase  the 
cost.  In  localities  where  little  building  is  being  done  the  cost 
will  be  lower,  as  a  rule,  for  the  contractors  are  not  busy. 
Freight  rates  and  trucking  differ  with  the  locality  and  length  of 
haul.  Carpenter's  wages  vary  within  large  limits  in  different 
sections  of  the  county.  Lumber,  cement,  brick,  and  millwork 
vary  with  the  scarcity  of  the  product  and  the  distance  from  the 
factory.  The  type  of  construction,  efficiency  of  the  builder, 
and  overhead  charges  tend  to  vary  the  cost  of  construction. 

Methods  of  Estimating. — The  two  general  methods  of  esti- 
mating costs  are  known  as  the  approximate  and  accurate 
methods.  The  object  of  the  approximate  method  is  to  give 
the  owner  some  idea  of  the  amount  of  money  he  will  need  to 
have  available  for  the  work.  It  is  by  no  means  accurate,  and 
must  be  used  with  caution.     The  accurate  method  takes  into 

326 


ESTIMATING  BY  CUBING  327 

account  each  item  of  overhead,  material,  and  labor.  The 
accurate  method  is  the  only  one  that  should  be  followed  by  the 
student  or  contractor. 

Estimating  by  Cubing. — This  is  the  most  convenient  and 
the  most  accurate  of  the  approximations.  The  contents  of  the 
building  are  determined,  in  cubic  feet,  and  the  result  multiphed 
by  a  unit  price.  The  outside  dimensions  of  the  building,  and 
the  distance  from  the  basement  or  ground  floor  line  to  the  aver- 
age height  of  the  roof,  are  used  to  figure  the  cubage.  The  unit 
price  per  cubic  foot  is  based  on  other  accurate  prices  for  build- 
ings of  a  similar  type  and  in  the  same  locality.  Comparison 
with  a  large  number  of  similar  buildings  will  afford  a  more 
accurate  unit  than  general  figures  based  on  a  few  buildings. 

The  cubic  foot  price  for  good  frame  dwellings  is  given  in 
Kidder's  "  Pocketbook  "  as  10  cents  per  cubic  foot,  and  the 
price  was  quite  accurate  for  the  time  the  book  was  published. 
In  1917  the  cubic  foot  price  in  the  Central  States  was  around  17 
cents  per  cubic  foot,  while  in  1920  the  same  type  of  structure 
would  cost  between  25  and  40  cents. 

Estimating  by  the  Square. — In  some  cases  it  is  more  con- 
venient to  estimate  by  the  unit  of  area.  One  hundred  square 
feet  may  furnish  a  fair  estimate  of  the  cost  of  a  store,  armory, 
school,  or  large  barn.  This  method  is  not  so  accurate  as  the 
cubic  method.  For  small  work  such  as  lathing,  plastering, 
cement  floors,  and  shingles,  the  price  may  be  based  on  the  square 
yard  unit,  as  the  work  is  so  nearly  similar  in  different  cases  that 
the  average  cost  may  be  used  as  a  basis  for  an  accurate  estimate. 

Estimating  by  Accommodation  Units. — Instead  of  the  vol- 
ume or  area  unit  the  cost  may  be  averaged  for  each  unit  of 
accommodation,  or  for  each  animal  or  stall  in  a  barn,  or  for  each 
room  or  person. 

Accurate  Estimating — Since  the  accurate  estimate  includes 
all  factors  which  affect  the  cost,  and  specifies  the  exact  amount 
of  material,  and  a  close  estimate  of  the  labor,  it  should  be  used 
in  all  cases  as  a  basis  for  contracts,  and  as  a  guide  to  the  prob- 
able cost  of  the  building.  The  accurate  estimate  includes  a 
material  list,  labor  estimate  and  overhead  charges,  including 


328  COST  ESTIMATING 

cartage,  interest,  depreciation,  replacement,  lost  time,  protec- 
tion, and  the  contractor's  profit. 

Methods. — Before  beginning  an  estimate,  the  reader  should 
investigate  the  following  factors: 

Local  prices  for  lumber  and  millwork. 

Carpenter's  and  mason's  wages. 

Availability  and  cost  of  common  labor. 

Distance  of  haul. 

Seasonal  conditions. 

Labor  and  market  conditions. 

After  studying  the  above  general  conditions,  the  plans 
and  specifications  of  the  building  should  be  carefully  studied. 
The  plans,  elevations,  and  details  should  be  visuahzed  and 
special  construction  noted.  It  may  be  well  to  place  all  views 
of  the  building  on  a  table  or  wall  where  they  will  be  visible  to 
the  estimator.  The  specifications  state  the  quahty  of  work- 
manship, grades  of  material,  and  construction  methods.  The 
specifications  as  well  as  the  drawings  form  a  part  of  the  contract, 
and  should  be  followed  carefully. 

Legal  restrictions,  building  codes  and  permits  should  be 
attended  to  when  the  estimating  is  being  done.  Insurance, 
protection,  and  safeguards  should  be  figured  in  the  cost. 

Besides  local  prices  and  general  information,  the  estimator 
should  have  a  handbook  containing  "  reminders,"  fisting  the 
possible  points  to  be  covered,  tables  of  board  measure,  methods 
of  construction,  etc. 

Order  of  Estimating. — The  same  order  should  be  followed 
in  estimating  as  in  the  construction  of  the  building.  The  same 
order  should  be  followed  each  time,  to  avoid  the  possibility  of 
omissions.     The  following  order  is  suggested: 

1.  Excavation  and  grading. 

2.  Masonry. 

3.  Rough  lumber. 

4.  Millwork. 

5.  Plastering. 


EXCAVATION  329 

6.  Plumbing. 

7.  Hardware. 

8.  Painting. 

9.  Lighting  fixtures. 

Under  each  of  these  heads  the  quantities,  unit  prices,  labor, 
rate,  and  totals  should  be  listed.  It  is  very  important  that 
each  item  be  placed  under  its  proper  heading  and  so  labeled  that 
it  can  be  quickly  referred  to.  This  will  faciUtate  checking, 
or  tracing  errors  and  will  be  valuable  in  future  estimating.  In 
Part  V  of  this  text  will  be  found  tables  of  materials  and  quan- 
tities that  wiU  be  of  assistance  in  estimating. 

Excavation. — The  cubic  yard  is  the  unit  of  excavation. 
To  determine  the  amount,  multiply  the  length,  width  and  depth 
of  the  excavation  in  feet,  and  divide  by  27.  The  excavation  for 
dwellings  is  usually  larger  1  foot  each  way,  than  the  foundation. 
Excavation  includes  the  removal  of  dirt  for  the  necessary  drains 
and  trenches.  The  filhng  and  grading  are  a  part  of  the  exca- 
vation contract.  The  top  and  subsoil  are  usually  piled  sep- 
arately. The  cost  will  vary  with  the  character  of  the  soil, 
depth  of  cut,  manner  of  removing  dirt  and  the  amount  of 
moisture.  The  average  price  per  yard  is  35  to  40  cents,  for 
team  work.  The  dirt  can  often  be  sold  to  other  parties  for 
filling  purposes- 

Masonry. — This  division  includes  footings,  foundations, 
chimneys,  fireplaces,  areaways,  steps,  walks,  and  floors  of 
masonry  construction.  The  usual  divisions  of  the  masonry 
work  are  stone,  brick,  hollow  tile,  mortar,  and  concrete.  No 
allowance  is  ordinarily  made  for  openings,  as  there  is  no  saving 
for  small  openings.  Corners  are  measured  in  each  wall,  or 
doubled. 

Stone  is  measured  by  the  perch,  cubic  yard,  or  ton.  Only 
a  small  amount  of  stone  is  used  in  farm  buildings. 

Brickwork  is  measured  by  the  thousand  brick,  or  by  the 
cubic  foot,  allowing  twenty-one  bricks  per  cubic  foot.  There 
should  be  an  allowance  of  fifty  bricks  per  thousand  for  waste. 
The  grades  usually  used  are  conmion,  for  chinmeys  and  backing, 


330  COST  ESTIMATING 

face  brick  for  exposed  work,  and  special  brick  for  decorations 
and  fireplaces. 

Hollow  building  tile  are  used  largely  in  farm  construction 
in  place  of  brick,  and  are  purchased  by  the  thousand.  A  com- 
mon size  is  5  by  8  by  12  inches.  Laid  to  form  a  5-inch  wall, 
one  and  one-half  tile  are  required  for  each  square  foot  of  wall. 
If  an  8-inch  wall  is  made,  there  will  be  two  tile  per  square 
foot.  Hollow  tile  are  laid  up  more  rapidly  than  brick,  and  use 
about  the  same  amount  of  mortar. 

Mortar  joints  for  brick  vary  from  J  to  |  inch,  and  J  to  |  for 
hollow  tile.  One  thousand  common  brick  require  about  14 
cubic  feet  of  mortar  while  about  55  cubic  feet  of  mortar  are 
required  for  1000  hollow  tile.  Lime  mortar  is  composed  of  1 
part  hme  to  3  parts  sand,  and  a  lime  cement  mortar  is  1  part 
cement,  3  parts  sand  and  10  per  cent  by  volume  of  lime  putty. 

Concrete  costs  include  the  price  of  cement,  sand,  gravel, 
forms,  labor  and  reinforcing.  Cement  is  sold  in  bags  of  94 
pounds,  or  in  barrels  of  four  bags  each.  Sand  and  gravel  are 
priced  by  the  cubic  yard,  at  the  pit,  and  freight  and  cartage 
must  be  added.  From  the  tables  of  quantities  given  in  Chapter 
XXXVII,  the  amounts  of  each  ingredient  can  be  determined 
for  the  mixture  to  be  used.  The  volume  of  concrete  necessary 
is  figured  in  cubic  yards  or  in  cubic  feet,  and  the  aggregates 
determined.  Reinforcing  steel  is  specified  in  the  plans  and  is 
priced  by  the  pound. 

The  cost  of  forms  may  be  reduced  by  using  the  form  lumber 
in  the  superstructure,  the  amount  of  form  lumber  being  deter- 
mined in  the  same  manner  as  the  rough  lumber.  Contractors 
often  use  steel  forms.  The  labor  for  concrete  is  a  variable  item. 
Four  men  and  a  power  mixer  should  make  30  yards  of  concrete 
in  a  ten-hour  day.     Hand  mixing  requires  more  time. 

Rough  Lumber. — The  items  included  in  the  rough  car- 
pentry are  the  framework  or  skeleton  of  the  building,  sheathing, 
roof  covering  and  siding.  The  most  important  problem  of  the 
carpentry  work  is  the  **  bill  of  material,"  or  material  fist.  The 
bill  should  specify  the  number  of  pieces,  size,  length,  grade,  kind 
of  material,  its  use,  number  of  board  feet  and  the  unit  price  and 


MILLWORK  331 

total.     The  following  example  shows  how  the  lumber  should  be 
listed : 

10  pieces,  2X6    12'  0"  long,  No.  1,  fir,  studding,    120  bd.  ft.  @      $     7.20 
50  pieces,  2X12  16'  0"  long,  No.  1,  y.  p.        joist,  1600  bd.  ft.  @      $104.00 


Total .$111.20 

In  making  up  the  material  bill,  it  is  best  to  start  with 
the  sills,  and  continue  in  much  the  same  order  as  the  construc- 
tion work  is  to  be  done.  Lumber  is  priced  by  the  1000  board 
feet,  or  in  some  cases  by  the  piece.  The  standard  sizes  for  the 
locality  should  be  determined,  and  the  order  confined  to  stock 
lengths  and  sizes  so  far  as  possible.  Lumber  waste  due  to 
dressing  and  waste  in  sawing  should  be  considered,  and  extra 
material  ordered. 

Millwork. — The  millwork  includes  all  of  the  inside  finish, 
stairs,  raihngs,  moldings,  windows  and  doors  and  all  parts  of 
the  carpentry  work  not  included  in  the  rough  lumber.  The 
use  of  stock  sizes  and  shapes,  as  listed  by  the  millwork  company, 
should  be  carried  out  as  far  as  possible,  as  there  is  an  extra 
charge  for  special  sizes,  ranging  from  10  to  50  per  cent  higher 
than  the  cost  of  stock  sizes.  Practically  all  of  the  material 
can  be  found  by  securing  catalogues  and  stock  Ust  from  the 
millwork  company  nearest  at  hand. 

Moldings,  railing,  quarter  round,  and  trim  are  sold  by  the 
Hneal  foot.  Complete  trim  for  windows  and  doors  is  some- 
times Hsted  ready  fitted.  Windows  are  specified  by  giving  the 
kind  of  window,  width,  length,  number  of  lights,  and  how 
divided.  Doors  are  hsted,  giving  the  width,  height,  and 
thickness,  also  the  number  of  panels  and  the  material  and  con- 
struction required. 

Plastering. — The  price  for  plastering  is  made  on  the  basis 
of  cost  per  square  yard.  The  contract  price  may  include  lath, 
labor,  and  material.  The  entire  area  of  the  inside  walls,  includ- 
ing the  ceihng,  is  figured,  with  no  allowance  for  ordinary  open- 
ings. An  extra  charge  is  made  for  high  ceilings,  small  surfaces, 
and  arches  and  curves.     Keene's  Cement  plaster  for  kitchens 


332  COST  ESTIMATING 

and  bathrooms  costs  more  than  straight  work.  One  hundred 
square  yards  of  plaster,  with  patent  plaster,  will  require  about 
9  bags  of  plaster,  3i  bags  of  Hme,  J  barrel  of  plaster  of  Paris,  and 
and  a  small  amount  of  sand.  One  hundred  square  yards  of 
lathing  will  require  1400  lath,  and  a  fair  laborer  will  lath  that 
amount  in  one  day. 

Plumbing. — The  rough  plumbing  includes  soil  pipes,  drains, 
vents  and  traps.  Water  tank,  pipes,  fittings,  and  connections 
should  be  included  in  the  contract.  The  septic  tank  should  be 
included  in  the  plumbing  contract.  The  prices  are  quoted  by 
the  foot  or  by  the  piece,  and  a  complete  bill  should  be  made 
from  the  plans.  The  finish  plumbing  includes  bath,  kitchen,' 
and  laundry  fixtures.  The  price  should  provide  for  a  good 
grade  of  enameled-iron  plumbing.  The  plumbing  work  should 
be  done  by  an  experienced  plumber,  and  prices"  should  be 
secured  for  the  job  complete. 

Hardware. — The  rough  hardware  includes  nails,  flashing, 
gutters,  and  all  tinwork  on  the  house  or  barn.  Door  and 
window  hardware  should  be  selected  by  the  owner,  and  prices 
secured  from  the  dealer  for  the  grade  required.  Hardware  for 
the  other  farm  buildings  includes  barn  equipment,  stalls,  ven- 
tilators, hog  house  fixtures,  etc.  This  material  should  all  be 
selected  by  the  owner,  and  installed  by  the  contractor. 

Painting. — Painting  is  measured  by  the  square  yard,  and  no 
deductions  made  for  openings.  One  gallon  of  priming  paint 
will  cover  50  square  yards  of  new  work.  One  gallon  of  paint  will 
cover  about  40  square  yards  on  the  second  and  third  coats.  A 
good  painter  can  do  100  yards  of  priming  in  a  day,  and  80  yards 
of  second  and  third  coat  work.  Inside  finish  and  floor  paints 
and  varnishes  vary  so  greatly  that  accurate  information  for  all 
cases  cannot  be  attempted  here. 

Lighting  Fixtures. — The  lighting  fixtures  and  wiring  should 
also  be  selected  by  the  owner.  For  farm  lighting  plants  the 
wire  must  be  heavier  than  for  the  100-volt  city  current.  The 
average  price  for  rough  wiring  is  about  $1.25  per  outlet.  The 
cost  of  fixtures  may  vary  within  a  considerable  range  according 
to  quality. 


OVERHEAD  COSTS  333 

Other  Items. — The  estimator  will  need  to  include  screens, 
walks,  heating  plant,  water  system  and  hke  items  in  many  plans. 

Overhead  Costs. — In  making  up  the  estimate  of  a  building 
it  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  there  are  many  other  items  aside 
from  labor  and  material  that  affect  the  cost.  The  contractor, 
established  in  business,  must  have  interest  on  his  investment, 
depreciation,  insurance,  office  expense,  and  a  return  for  the  lost 
time  of  men.  This  expense  is  proportioned  according  to  the 
isize  of  the  job  and  the  time  required  for  the  construction.  This 
item  does  not  necessarily  increase  the  cost  to  the  owner,  as 
the  increased  efficiency  of  the  contractor  should  offset  this 
expense.  If  the  work  is  done  by  day  labor,  or  by  the  owner,  a 
charge  comparable  to  the  overhead  cost  should  be  added  to  care 
for  the  cost  of  tools,  extras,  and  a  possible  inefficiency.  The 
charge  for  extras  should  be  placed  at  about  10  per  cent  of  the 
estimated  cost. 

Profit. — The  contractor  is  entitled  to  a  profit  for  the  service 
and  management  supphed  by  him.  The  amount  of  profit 
varies  with  labor  and  material  conditions,  season,  etc.  The 
amount  will  range  from  10  per  cent  on  the  large  job,  to  25  or  30 
per  cent  on  the  small  building.  There  are  several  ways  of  fig- 
uring profit.  The  most  common  method  is  a  fixed  sum,  or 
lump  sum,  fixed  by  the  contractor,  when  he  makes  the  bid. 
Another  method  is  the  cost  plus  percentage,  in  which  the  con- 
tractor agrees  to  take  a  percentage  of  10  to  15  per  cent  of  the 
actual  cost  to  compensate  for  the  service  rendered.  The  cost 
plus  a  fixed  sum  is  a  method  favored  by  many. 

Competitive  Bids. — In  many  cases  the  owner  will  prefer 
to  give  the  work  to  a  certain  contractor,  because  of  his  quah- 
fications  for  carrying  out  the  work.  If  several  men  are  to  bid 
on  a  job,  there  should  be  several  sets  of  plans  and  specifications, 
for  the  use  of  the  bidders.  If  the  contract  covers  well-written 
specifications  and  complete  plans,  the  owner  will  be  reasonably 
safe  in  accepting  the  lowest  bid.  It  must  be  kept  in  mind,  how- 
ever, that  the  higher  price  of  one  man  may  be  made  up  by  better 
workmanship,  and  a  higher  skill  in  building.  The  same  com- 
petitive method  of  securing  material  bids  may  be  followed. 


334  COST  ESTIMATING 

Farm  Building  Costs.— The  farmer  should  place  a  reasonable 
valuation  on  his  services  for  hauling,  excavating,  and  farm 
labor  in  the  construction.  The  actual  cash  cost  of  farm  buildings 
may  be  reduced  considerably  below  the  estimate  if  the  farmer 
furnishes  teams  for  hauhng,  board  for  laborers,  and  aids  in  the 
work  of  building. 

The  authors  beheve  that  many  of  the  smaller  structures 
shown  in  this  book  may  be  built  at  a  low  cash  cost  by  the 
regular  farm  labor.  This  appUes  especially  to  small  hog  houses, 
feeding  equipment,  and  sheds,  on  which  the  carpenter  or  con- 
tractor would  not  care  to  bid. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 
PLAN  DRAWING 

The  ability  to  read  and  understand  drawings  and  blue 
prints  is  a  necessary  accomplishment  if  one  is  interested  in  farm 
buildings  to  any  extent.  The  abiUty  to  draw  plans  or  make 
working  drawings  is  valuable  to  the  student,  builder,  or  farmer. 
Much  of  the  value  of  the  study  of  buildings  lies  in  the  working 
out  of  plans,  and  no  course  of  study  is  complete  without  a  por- 
tion of  the  time  being  devoted  to  drawing.  There  are  several 
excellent  books  on  the  subject  of  drawing,  and  only  a  few  brief 
suggestions  will  be  given  here  to  guide  the  reader  in  applying 
the  principles  to  farm  buildings.  ' 

Material  for  Drawing. — Complete  plans  require  full  equip- 
ment of  drafting  tools  for  best  results,  while  simple  sketch 
plans  may  be  drawn  with  simply  a  rule  and  a  pencil.  For  best 
results  a  reasonably  complete  outfit  is  necessary,  and  the  follow- 
ing tools  are  recommended : 

Drawing  board. 
T-square. 

45  and  30-60°  triangles. 
Thumb  tacks. 
Architect's  scale. 

Drawing  pencils,  hard  and  medium. 
Pencil  eraser. 
Waterproof  ink. 
Lettering  pens. 

Tracing  paper  or  drawing  paper. 

Set  of  instruments,  including  ruling  pen,  combination 
compass  and  divider.  , 

335 


336 


PLAN  DRAWING 


With  good  care  a  set  of  tools  will  last  many  years,  and 
good  quality  tools  should  be  purchased.  A  substantial,  good 
quality  set  of  tools  may  be  purchased  for  $10  to  $12. 

Selection,  Use  and  Care  of  Equipment. — The  drawing  board 
should  be  of  soft  wood,  preferably  poplar,  basswood,  or  white 
pine,  and  should  haVe  at  least  one  side  perfectly  straight  and 
true.  The  best  size  is  about  21  by  32  inches,  the  construction 
being  such  that  it  will  not  warp. 

The  T-square  should  have  at  least  a  30-inch  blade.  The 
best  squares  are  made  of  hardwood,  such  as  maple,  and  edged 

with  celluloid.  The 
T-square  should  always 
be  placed  with  the  head 
against  the  left  side  of 
the  board,  and  operated 
with  the  left  hand.  It 
is  used  for  drawing  hori- 
zontal Unes,  and  to  sup- 
port the  triangles  in 
making  vertical  or  diag- 
onal Unes.  Lines  are 
drawn  along  the  upper 
edge  of  the  square,  from 
left  to  right.  Only  the  left-hand  side  of  the  board  should  be 
used  to  guide  the  T-square. 

Triangles  are  made  of  celluloid,  and  the  two  sizes  mentioned 
above  are  the  only  ones  necessary  for  ordinary  work.  Special 
lettering  triangles,  and  large  triangles  are  used  for  special  work. 
The  triangles  are  used  for  making  vertical  Hues  and  lines  at 
common  angles,  and  are  rested  on  the  edge  of  the  T-square  to 
keep  them  squared  with  the  work. 

The  architect's  scale  has  the  usual  division  of  12  inches  to 
the  foot,  which  is  further  divided  into  quarters,  eighths,  and 
sixteenths.  Other  divisions  on  the  scale  are  |,  j,  J,  and  1  inch 
divisions,  part  of  which  are  further  subdivided  into  twelve  parts 
each,  for  convenience.  These  fractional  parts  of  the  inch  are 
used  to  represent  1  foot  on  the  drawing.     Beginners  are  often 


•  oat- fvSQOAT2E-- A/ID   TRlA/ICiJLta  • 

Fig.  319. — Drawing  board  with  triangles 
and  tee  square. 


DRAWING  PAPER  337 

inclined  to  reduce  the  scale  of  the  plan  by  working  with  the 
regular  divisions  on  the  rule.  A  httle  study  of  the  architect's 
scale  will  show  its  value. 

Drawing  pencils  are  graded  from  6B,  or  very  soft  leads,  to 
6H,  or  very  hard.  The  soft  pencils  make  a  heavy  Une  but 
smear  easily.  HB  is  the  best  grade  for  sketching,  and  H  or  2H 
is  good  for  use  on  tracing  papers.  For  careful  work  on  drawing 
paper  which  is  to  be  traced  with  ink  the  4H  is  suitable.  Pencils 
should  be  well  sharpened  to  a  long  point,  and  kept  sharp  with 
a  fine  file  or  sandpaper. 

Drawing  ink  should  be  of  good  quaUty,  special  India  drawing 
ink,  such  as  Higgins'  Waterproof.  The  bottle  must  be  kept 
corked  at  all  times,  except  while  filHng  the  pen.  Pens  are 
not  dipped  into  the  bottle,  but  are  inked  by  applying  a  small 
quantity  of  ink  by  means  of  the  quill  attached  to  the  cork. 

The  ruhng  pen  is  always  used  in  connection  with  the  T-square 
and  triangles.  It  is  moved  in  the  direction  in  which  one  would 
naturally  write,  and  the  nibs  are  kept  parallel  with  the  guide. 
Extremely  fine  fines  should  not  be  attempted. 

The  compass,  with  ink  or  pencil  attachment,  is  of  course 
used  for  curves  and  circles.  The  dividers  are  used  to  transfer 
measurements  from  one  place  to  another,  or  for  dividing  a  given 
space  into  an  equal  number  of  parts.  All  drawing  instruments 
should  be  kept  clean  and  dry,  and  should  be  carefully  handled 
if  accurate  work  is  to  be  done. 

Drawing  Paper. — Drawings  in  pencil  which  are  to  be  traced 
and  made  permanent  are  usually  made  on  a  white  or  cream- 
colored  heavy  drawing  paper.  If  the  drawing  is  to  supply  onty 
a  few  sets  of  blue  prints,  it  may  be  made  on  tracing  paper,  a 
thin  tough  paper  from  which  the  prints  may  be  made  direct. 
Tracing  cloth  is  for  permanent  drawings,  and  is  a  Hnen  cloth 
treated  with  a  starch  preparation  to  make  it  semi-transparent. 
The  best  blue  prints  are  made  from  cloth  tracings. 

Scales. — The  usual  working  drawing  is  made  to  a  scale 
of  i  inch  to  the  foot,  and  represented  as  j'=VO".  Large 
buildings  are  made  to  a  scale  of  i''=l'  0''.  These  two  scales 
are  easily  handled  by  the  carpenter,  as  his  rule  is  divided  into 


338 


PLAN  DRAWING 


quarters  and  eighths.  One  inch  on  the  carpenter's  rule  is 
equal  to  4  or  8  feet.  An  odd  scale  such  as  f  =1'  C  should 
rarely  be  used.  Detail  drawings  are  for  the  purpose  of  explain- 
ing the  special,  or  comphcated  parts  of  the  structure,  and  are 
made  at  a  scale  of  f  or  1'^  to  1'  0".  Some  few  details  are  made 
full  size.  The  working  drawings  when  drawn  to  a  small  scale 
do  not  permit  of  complete  drawings  of  all  windows,  doors,  etc., 
and  conventional  symbols  are  used  to  represent  them  on  the 
plans. 

Kinds  of  Drawings. — The  most  important  kinds  of  drawings 
in  farm  building  work  are  the  perspective,  pictorial,  and  work- 
ing drawings.  Perspective  drawing  shows  the  building  or  object 
in  the  same  manner  that  it  appears  to  the  eye.  The  value  is  to 
show  how  the  finished  building  will  look.  The  perspective  is  of 
no  value  as  a  guide  to  construction,  and  since  it  is  difficult  to 
construct,  no  discussion  will  be  given  here. 

Isometric  Drawing. — The  principal  pictorial  drawings  are 
the  oblique  and  the  isometric, 
both  of  which  are  widely  used  to 
illustrate  bulletins,  text  books  and 
charts.  The  isometric  shows  the 
whole  object 
as  compared 
ive,  it  gives 
view. 


in  one  view,  and 
with  the  perspect- 
a    rather    distorted 


•IQO/nErTRlO  •  ©"RAWirtG 

Fig.  320. — An  isometric  drawing. 


tSOA\ETRIC. 


Fig.  321. 


In  plan  drawing,  there  is  only  one  view  of  the  object  shown. 
In  the  isometric  drawing  there  are  three  axes,  at  angles  120° 


WORKING  DRAWINGS  339 

apart — a  vertical  axis,  and  two  axes  30°  from  the  horizontal 
form  the  base  of  the  isometric  drawing.  All  vertical  Unes  of  the 
figure  are  parallel  to  the  vertical  axis,  while  horizontal  Hnes 
normally  parallel  to  the  paper  are  made  parallel  to  one  of  the  30° 
axes,  and  perpendicular  hnes  are  parallel  to  the  other  30° 
hne.  Thus  three  views,  as  the  top,  front,  and  side  of  any 
object,  may  be  shown  in  one  drawing.  All  measurements  are 
taken  along  the  Hne  of  the  isometric  axes.  Lines  not  parallel 
to  the  isometric  axes  are  drawn  by  locating  a  point  on  the  hne, 
then  measuring  along  the  axes  to  locate  the  point  on  the  iso- 
metric drawing.  Lines  drawn  through  the  point  so  located 
give  a  true  isometric  hne. 

Oblique  drawings  are  similar  to  isometric  in  construction. 
Instead  of  three  axes  120°  apart,  one  axis  is  made  vertical, 
one  horizontal,  and  the  third  at  30°.  Fig.  71  is  an  example  of 
the  oblique  drawing. 

Working  Drawings. — The  working  drawings  of  the  structure 
are  the  ones  of  most  importance  to  the  builder.  They  consist 
of  the  various  views  of  the  structure,  drawn  to  a  workable  scale, 
and  include  hnes,  dimensions,  notes,  and  lettering.  A  small 
simple  building  may  require  only  one  or  two  views,  while  the 
barn  or  house  should  include  several  views  and  details.  The 
more  complete  the  drawings  the  less  chance  there  is  of  shghting 
the  work. 

Working  drawings  include  the  following: 

Floor  plan  for  each  floor  of  building. 

Basement  plan. 

Roof  plan  if  necessary. 

Four  elevations. 

Cross-section. 

End  framing. 

Longitudinal  or  side  elevation  of  framing. 

Interior  elevation  if  necessary. 

Details  of  construction. 

The  floor  plan  is  a  horizontal  section  through  the  wall, 
taken  to  include  as  many  features  of  walls,  openings,  and  equip- 


340 


PLAN  DRAWING 


ment  as  possible.  The  framing  sections  and  elevations  locate 
the  framing  members,  show  heights,  sizes,  and  methods  of  con- 
struction. The  elevations  locate  window  and  door  openings, 
show  covering  material,  roof  pitches,  exterior  treatment  and, 
to  some  extent,  indicate  the  appearance  of  the  finished  building. 
In  general,  the  details  should  show  all  special  construction 
and  parts  unfamiUar  to  the  builder.  Details  may  vary  with  the 
importance  of  the  work  and  the  skill  of  the  builder.     As  a  rule, 


3     a     c 


F-     A      -R 


r     •!         All   p«n  doors  hinacs  at   top. 

3      I         ,    ^    [      m^    I 


■R.      O       W 
Colomni 


I     r^      G 


•  II  Columns 

o  ^  ^l£rein» ♦^  A     LLIfeYW     AY 


-SCALET'DTiAWirtCa'  •HOG«HOOSt--PLA/1 
'/iotft  Si  mcnions    find    S'cplanat  Sens  •   ■ 

Fig.  322. 


the  more  complete  the  details  the  more  likely  that  the  methods 
of  good  practice  will  be  followed. 

Method  of  Drawing. — Aside  from  the  mechanical  procedure 
of  handling  the  drafting  tools,  the  designer  of  farm  buildings 
should  have  in  mind  several  suggestions  which  apply  in  particular 
to  farm  buildings.  A  careful  study  should  be  made  to  determine 
the  best  arrangement,  construction,  and  equipment  of  the  build- 
ing. The  purpose  for  which  it  is  intended  will  have  some 
influence  on  the  plan.  The  essentials  of  sanitation,  appearance, 
economy  of  construction,  and  convenience  should  be  fully 
considered  before  the  plan  is  drawn. 

The  second  step  is  to  sketch  the  floor  plan  of  the  building  to 


DIMENSIONS 


341 


secure  the  best  plan  and  as  many  advantages  as  possible.  It 
may  be  necessary  to  sketch  the  plan  several  times  before  a 
satisfactory  arrangement  is  secured.  Time  will  be  saved  if 
dimensions  and  sizes  are  noted  on  the  sketch  plan. 

The  entire  plan  should  be  drawn  in  pencil  before  any  part 


^ 


m 


Concrete        Timber    Cut  afone    Corth        BricK      "Robbie  etonc 

\  N=i       \  L  r-----z.--z.iza         r— r 

'Window  ^~    Wall   Section        Opening     y^ooT^ 


Door  on  Traok 


3SC 

Intoki  P-loe 


H  inAed^^^oor« 


JS 


rome  PorHfion        iAletal  Panel 


PidnK  Partitioi 


Silall 


1*1 


Aton^er 
>Corb 

Bor 
•GoHer 


rr^ 


Calf  Pen 


Cov#  St«m.i.9 


9ton» 


Ho-Rax  'STAi.t.a 


Oot-Linc        Projecfion  Line   Center  Line      Invisible  Line 


^J LyJ — \^ 


dhinglea  dtdin^  (tollow   Tile 

3"Yin»OLS  •  \n  •  P-ARAl-  STROCTORB-D-RAWI/IQ- 
FiG.  323. 


of  it  is  inked  so  that  the  plans  may  be  made  to  correspond  in 
every  particular.  After  the  floor  plans  are  completed,  the 
framing  sections,  elevations,  and  details  are  drawn.  When 
the  plans  have  been  approved  they  may  be  inked  and  blue 
printed.     Details  are  sometimes  furnished  as  the  work  pro- 


342  PLAN  DRAWING 

gresses,  though  in  most  cases  the  best  method  is  to  furnish  comr 
plete  plans  and  details  before  the  contract  is  let. 

Dimensions. — The   figures   on   the   plans   are   of   greatest 

importance.    Very  little 

h  '°"^" ^      should  be  left  to  the  im- 

h  '-  1      agination  of  the  builder, 

^    ^e.4hode   of  Dimcnalonij^  ^^^     figUreS     shouM     be 

H    H'h   ^1^      Q      Qv    0        ^^^^^    rather   than    to 
Smou  Space*       ™  t-or  ^circ.,i*»  depend     ou    the    scale. 

Dimensions   should    in- 


VArce  6Corv«.»  i  f  ^^^       clude     outside     width, 

T-or  Ansice  length,  Spacing  of  open- 

*so.GG]tsTioi^a.-poi2.-DiA\it/^aio/iLrtQ-   ings,  sizes  of   openings, 

Fig.  324.  sizes  of   rooms,  spacing 

of   equipment,   sizes  of 

material,  and,  in  fact,  all  data  necessary  to  the  construction  of 

the  building. 

Figures  should  be  rather  large,   plain,  and  easy  to  read. 


1  H  LFETNKMVA  WXY  Z4  7 

O  QCGDUJPRB383Z5 

0  6  9  6,    MAR.  /.  21. 

3 INGLE  STROKE     UPRIGHT 

GOTHIC     LETTER. 

abode,  fg  h  ij  k  1  m  n  o  pq  r  j 

sfuvwxyz                J7 

8 

R^inhardt     /e^fen              7 

3 

Fig.  325. — Reinhardt  inclined  lettering. 

Arrow  heads  should  clearly  indicate  from  what  points  the  figures 
are  to  be  taken.  Series  of  figures  should  be  carried  across  the 
drawing  in  a  line,  rather  than  be  placed  at  various  points. 


LETTERING  343 

Lettering. — Letters  should  be  made  of  a  size  in  proportion 
to  the  space  available,  and  the  importance  of  the  detail  or  note. 
Architectural  lettering  is  less  formal  than  lettering  on  machine 
drawing,  and  there  is  more  room  for  artistic  expression.    The 


IHLFETNKMVAWXYZ4 
OOCGDUJPRBS  83257 
0  6  9  5.      MAY   1921. 


Fig.  326.— Vertical  lettering. 

average  draftsman  should  adhere  strictly  to  a  plain,  simple, 
readable  style  of  lettering.  Good  lettering  is  of  great  impor- 
ance  and  should  not  be  shghted.  Constant  practice  is  neces- 
sary for  proficiency.  Capital  letters  are  desirable  for  the 
important  lettering  on  plans.    Each  sheet  should  have  a  suit- 

J.  B.  PPsl/lPSOiH 
A/-AEr3.  loWp^ 


Fig.  327.— Title  layout. 

able  title,  showing  the  number  of  the  sheet,  number  of  the 
drawing,  name  of  owner  and  draftsman,  and  the  date  and  scale. 
About  Original  Work. — Student  draftsmen  should  avoid 
copying.  Each  plan  is  a  special  plan,  and  if  too  much  copying 
is  done  the  results  may  not  be  satisfactory.     The  student  should 


344  PLAN  DRAWING 

refer  to  good  completed  drawings  for  information  as  to  methods 
and  construction  details.  Care  should  be  taken,  however,  to 
preserve  the  originaUty  of  the  drawing  at  hand.  The  draw- 
ings in  this  text,  although  primarily  for  the  purpose  of  illus- 
tration, show  methods  and  practices  common  to  good  con- 
struction. Reference  to  the  illustrations  will  show  various 
methods  of  drafting,  manner  of  handhng  the  various  parts  of 
the  construction,  and  plan  arrangement. 

No  hst  of  problems  for  practice  is  given  in  the  text.  The 
authors  have  found  that  the  best  results  are  secured  if  the 
student  works  out  plans  for  buildings  in  which  he  is  particularly 
interested.  One  of  the  best  problems  to  work  out  is  the  com- 
plete plan  of  a  farm  barn,  possibly  for  the  student's  home  farm, 
or  one  in  which  he  is  interested. 


CHAPTER  XXXV 
RAFTER  FRAMING  AND  CUTTING 

Roof  framing  is  considered  one  of  the  most  difficult  parts 
of  construction.  The  carpenter  solves  the  problems  of  cutting 
and  framing  by  means  of  the  steel  square.  The  student  or 
draftsman  uses  apphed  geometry.  In  order  that  both  methods 
may  be  understood,  the  simpler  problems  of  roof  framing  will  be 
discussed  here. 

Types  of  Roofs. — The  roofs  found  on  most  farm  buildings 
may  be  grouped  into  four  general  classes  of  shed,  gable,  hip,  and 
gambrel.  The  framing  of  the  monitor  and  "  sawtooth  "  roofs 
present  the  same  problems  as  the  above-mentioned  classes. 

The  shed  or  lean-to  roof  has  a  single  slope,  and  the  problem 
of  rafter  cutting  is  confined  to  the  one  slope  and  pitch.  The 
gable  roof  has  two  equal  slopes,  which  meet  at  the  center 
of- the  building  to  form  a  ridge,  and  has  a  gable  at  each  end. 
The  hip  roof  slopes  from  all  four  walls  to  the  center,  meeting  in 
a  point  or  a  short  ridge.  Sometimes  the  hip  roof  has  a  deck 
at  the  top,  instead  of  a  ridge.  The  gambrel  roof  has  already 
been  discussed.  This  type  of  roof  has  two  slopes  in  each  side  of 
the  roof  for  which  the  rafters  and  braces  must  be  cut. 

Common  Terms  in  Roof  Construction. — Some  of  the  terms 
used  in  this  discussion  were  defined  in  Chapter  IX.  The 
reader  should  also  be  famihar  with  the  following  definitions: 

Ridge. — The  intersection  of  the  two  slopes  of  a  roof,  usually 
in  the  center  of  the  building. 

Span. — The  horizontal  distance  between  walls  or  plates  on 
which  the  rafters  rest. 

Run. — The  horizontal  distance  spanned  by  a  rafter.  In 
the  gable  roof  the  run  of  any  rafter  is  equal  to  one-half  the  span. 

345 


346  RAFTER  FRAMING  AND  CUTTING 

Rise. — The  vertical  distance  from  wall  or  plate  to  the  top  of 
rafter,  or  to  the  ridge. 

Pitch. — The  ratio  between  the  rise  and  the  span,  expressed 

numerically  as  |,  J,  etc.,  and  denotes  the  steepness  of  the  roof. 

Rise       Rise        _  ,  .        ^       ^ 

Pitch   =^ =p)     r> — •     l^or  example,  a  rise  of  6  feet  on  a 

span  of  24  feet  is  expressed  as  ^  or  J. 

Rafter. — The  sloping  structural  member  of  the  roof  frame. 

Collar  Beam. — A  short  horizontal 

tie  to  strengthen  the  rafters  at  the 

ridge. 

Hip  Rafter. — Diagonal   rafter  in 

the  hip    roof,  which  runs   from   the 

corner  to  the  ridge. 

Jack   Rafter. — Short    rafters    ex- 
FiG.  328. — Rafter  position       .       -,•         c  .i  i   ^      4.      ^.i,      u- 

,  ,  tendmg  from  the  plate  to  the  hip 

and  terms.  n         •       ^      ^  •         \'  <- 

rafter,  m  the  hip  roof  frame. 

Rafter  Cutting. — The  sloping  rafter  must  be  cut  in  such  shape 
that  when  placed  in  position  in  the  frame  it  will  rest  squarely 
and  securely  on  the  wall  or  plate  at  the  bottom  and  meet  the 
opposite  rafter  or  ridge  pole  squarely  at  the  top.  The  cut  at 
the  bottom  is  called  the  seat  cut,  and  the  top  cut  on  the  rafter 
is  known  as  the  ridge,  or  plumb  cut.  If  the  rafter  sets  entirely 
on  the  wall,  the  seat  cut  is  horizontal.  If  the  end  of  the  rafter 
projects  beyond  the  plate  to  form  the  lookout,  the  rafter  must 
be  notched  at  the  plate,  and  the  seat  cut  will  have  both  vertical 
or  plumb  cut  and  horizontal  cut. 

The  object  of  using  the  steel  square  in  cutting  rafters  is  to 
determine  the  length  and  the  shape  of  the  ridge  and  seat  cuts. 

Determining  the  Cuts. — Properly  to  determine  the  cuts  on 
the  rafter  it  is  necessary  to  find  the  rise  and  run  of  the  rafter. 
This  is  found  by  referring  to  the  plans.  The  run  is  scaled  on 
the  blade  of  the  steel  square,  and  the  rise  is  scaled  on  the  tongue 
of  the  square,  the  reason  for  which  is  shown  by  the  illustration. 
If  the  rafter  were  placed  in  a  sloping  position  as  it  would  be  in 
the  roof,  and  the  steel  square  placed  so  the  blade  is  along  the 
line  of  the  plate,  and  the  tongue  is  in  line  with  the  ridge,  it  will 


ANALYTICAL  METHOD  347 

be  found  that  a  line  drawn  along  the  blade  and  tongue  would  be 
horizontal  and  vertical,  respectively.  The  usual  method  is  to 
lay  off  12  inches  along  the  blade,  representing  1  foot  of  run,  and 
the  number  of  inches  on  the  tongue  depends  on  the  slope  of  the 
roof,  as  6  inches  when  the  pitch  is  J.  The  upper  edge  of  the 
rafter  or  a  chalked  center  Hne  is  used  as  a  work  line.  The 
square  is  held  as  shown  in  Fig.  331,  with  the  figures  for  run  and 
rise  on  the  work  Hne.  A  line  scribed  along  the  blade  will  be 
parallel  to  the  seat  or  horizontal  cut,  and  a  line  scribed  along 
the  tongiie  will  be  plumb  when  the  rafter  is  placed  in  position. 

If  the  lower  end  of  the  rafter  projects,  the  end  is  usually 
cut  parallel  to  the  ridge  cut.  The  vertical  part  of  the  seat  cut 
will  also  be  parallel  to  the  ridge  cut.  If  the  above  points  are 
kept  in  mind  it  will  be  possible  to  cut  rafters  for  any  given  pitch 
by  means  of  the  steel  square. 

Determining  the  Length. — As  a  rule  only  the  pitch  of  the 
rafter  is  given,  and  it  is 
necessary  to  determine     ,)  .  iy 


Ltnitth    ef  Waft* 


necessary  to  aetermme     ,.)  .  "^^ffl^"^'''^""?^ W^^''- 

the  exact  length  before    f\  ^^        |J  w) 


VluVnb    Cut 


cutting.    There  are  two 

.RArreR  sMowiAto  s^t^  scat  b.  PJ-o/ns  oots- 

methods  of  finding  the  ^^^  329.-Rafter  Cuts. 

length,  which  may  be 

designated    as  the    analytical  method  and   the   practical,    or 
carpenter's  method.     Both  will  be  discussed  briefly. 

Analytical  Method. — It  will  be  noted  that  the  run  and 
rise  of  any  rafter  form  two  sides  of  a  triangle,  of  which  the 
rafter  line  is  the  third  side  or  hypotenuse.  By  geometrical  rule, 
the  sum  of  the  squares  of  the  two  sides  is  equal  to  the  square  of 
the  hypotenuse.  Therefore,  the  square  root  of  the  run  squared 
plus  the  rise  squared  will  equal  the  length  of  the  rafter,  from  the 
plate  to  the  ridge.  After  the  length  of  the  rafter  has  been 
marked  off  on  the  stock,  the  square  is  used  to  determine  the 
cut.  The  plumb  cut  should  be  made  near  one  end  of  the  piece. 
The  square  is  then  moved  to  the  other  end  of  the  laid-out 
length,  and  a  plumb  line  is  marked  through  this  end.  Next  the 
square  is  moved  to  a  position  such  that  a  line  scribed  along  the 
blade  will  intersect  the  plumb  Hne.     If  the  rafter  is  to  seat 


348 


RAFTER  FRAMING  AND  CUTTING 


entirely  on  the  plate,  the  stock  is  sawed  off  at  the  horizontal  cut. 
If  the  rafter  is  to  be  notched,  the  depth  of  the  notch  may  be 
regulated  by  the  position  of  the  square  when  the  horizontal 
line  is  scribed.    The  overhang  or  show  end  of  the  rafter  is 


Length 

of  Toil     , 
tnd  Cof  -  I  ^««>  C.ot 


b^ 


Length  of  Hoftti- 


sitions    of   Opcrotor- 

Fig.  330. — Common  rafter  layout,  calculated. 


marked  for  a  plumb  cut,  at  a  distance  from  the  plate  as  desired, 
or  as  shown  by  the  plans. 

Carpenter's  Method. — This  method  begins  with  the  laying 
out  of  the  ridge  cut,  near  one  end  of  the  stock,  after  the  pitch  is 
known.  In  the  first  method  described,  12  inches  was  taken 
as  the  run,  and  the  rise  was  taken  as  a  proportional  part  of  1  foot. 
Therefore,  if  the  steel  square  is  laid  on  the  rafter  stock  in  one 


l.cn9*h   of  rter**r- 


l.f.nt*h  Tai,l 


/."v..  ./. 


^""^-^^  '^14^  ")^^  ^j^  ^'yii  ^'yj^  '^'3^'  '^'y^  '^'>^6  %' 
/    //    /  z^'  /  /  //    //  /  /' 

<>'  '-J  <J  </    ^       c  </  <J  C  <J  // 

-»&Al.I/1G-1CAl^T»R-WITM-»-ntftl.-SQOARt-   -Vs  PITCH - 

Fig.  331. — Common  rafter  layout,  scaling — carpenter's  methods. 

position,  and  Hues  are  scribed  on  both  outside  edges  of  the 
square,  and  sawed  out,  the  result  would  be  a  rafter  whose  run  is 
1  foot  long,  but  with  the  correct  cuts.  It  follows  that  if  the 
single  setting  of  the  square  gave  the  length  of  rafter  propor- 
tional to  1  foot  of  run,  it  is  only  necessary  to  set  the  square  along 
the  piece,  beginning  at  the  ridge  cut,  as  many  times  as  there  are 
feet  of  run  in  the  rafter. 

After  the  square  has  been  placed  a  sufficient  number  of 
times  to  lay  off  the  length,  vertical  and  horizontal  fines  through 


HIP-ROOF  FRAMING  349 

the  point  found  will  give  the  seat  cut,  and  the  end,  or  heel  cut, 
is  found  as  before. 

The  carpenter's  method  is  more  Hkely  to  be  in  error,  since 
there  are  several  settings  of  the  square.  It  is  simpler,  however, 
to  handle  than  the  theoretical  method.  After  one  rafter  has 
been  laid  out  and  cut,  the  master  pattern  will  serve  by  which  to 
cut  all  other  similar  rafters.  The  beginner  should  put  the  first 
pair  in  place,  however,  to  see  that  no  error  has  been  made. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  have  all  cuts  in  correct  relation  to  one 
another,  in  order  that  they  will  fit  properly  into  the  roof  frame. 

Hip-roof  Framing. — The  rafter  cutting  described  above 
apphes  to  the  simpler  styles  of  gable,  shed  and  monitor  roofs. 
The  parts  of  the  hip  roof  are  more  difficult  and  compHcated  and 
will  not  be  discussed  here.  If  the  reader  is  especially  interested 
in  the  hip  roof,  he  should  consult  a  treatise  on  roof  framing,  or  on 
the  steel  square.  Hip  and  valley  rafters  are  those  framing  the 
sloping  intersection  of  two  roof  slopes.  The  length  is  equal  to 
the  square  root  of  the  sum  of  the  three  edges  of  the  cube,  or 
imaginary  box,  of  which  the  rafter  is  the  diagonal.  The  jack 
rafters  vary  in  length,  usually  by  even  increments.  The  exact 
lengths  and  cuts  are  not  of  sufficient  importance  in  farm  build- 
ings to  justify  consideration  here. 

Gambrel-roof  Framing. — The  pitches,  lengths,  and  con- 
struction of  the  gambrel  roof  are  fully  discussed  in  Chapter  X. 
The  ridge  cut  of  the  upper  rafters  is  cut  the  same  as  that  for  the 
common  rafter.  In  the  Shawver  frame  the  lower  end  of  the 
upper  rafter  is  cut  square  with  the  stock.  In  the  braced  rafter 
frame  the  cut  may  be  made  to  bisect  the  angle  between  the  upper 
and  lower  rafters.  Since  the  lower  rafters  in  this  framing  usually 
rest  on  the  plate,  the  seat  cut  is  full  horizontal.  If  the  Shawver 
frame  is  used,  the  opposite  end  of  the  lower  rafter  is  cut  at  60° 
with  the  horizontal,  to  fit  against  the  purlin.  If  there  is  no 
purhn,  the  rafter  end  is  cut  to  fit  the  upper  rafter.  The  lookout 
on  the  braced  rafter  or  Shawver  frame  is  usually  cut  at  45°. 

Other  Uses  of  Steel  Squares. — The  steel  square  is  used 
for  many  other  purposes  on  the  construction  job,  and  is  one 
of  the  most  useful  of  all  tools  for  the  carpenter.    Volumes  have 


350  RAFTER  FRAMING  AND  CUTTING 

been  written  on  the  use  of  the  square,  and  the  reader  is  referred 
to  one  of  them  for  further  information. 

Siding  in  the  lower  gable  ends  may  be  cut  by  using  the  same 
setting  of  the  square  as  for  the  horizontal  cut,  since  the  angle 
of  the  horizontal  siding  cut  is  90°,  rafter  angle.  A  setting  of 
equal  figures  on  the  tongue  and  blade  will  give  an  angle  of  45° 
with  the  work  line. 

The  use  of  the  steel  square  in  framing  is  not  confined  to  the 
framing  of  the  larger  structures  about  the  farm,  but  is  valuable 
in  determining  the  cuts  in  the  building  of  small  hog  houses, 
poultry  coops,  feeders,  and  such  structures. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI 
WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  FORMULAS 

Linear  Measure 

12    inches  =  1  foot 

3    feet     =1  yard 

5 1  yards  =  1  rod 

320    rods    =1  mile 

Square  Measure 

144    square  inches  =  1  square  foot 
9    square  feet     =  1  square  yard 
30 J  square  yards  =  1  square  rod 
160    square  rods     =  1  acre 
640    acres  =  1  square  mile,  or  1  section 

Cubic  Measure 
1728  cubic  inches  =  1  cubic  foot 
27  cubic  feet   =  1  cubic  yard 
128  cubic  feet    =  1  cord 

Avoirdupois  Weight 

16  drams   =  1  ounce 

16  ounces  =  1  pound 
2000  pounds  =  1  ton 

Liquid  Measure 
4  gills     =  1  pint 
2  pints    =  1  quart 
4  quarts  =  1  gallon 

Dry  Measure 
2  pints    =  1  quart 
8  quarts  =  1  peck 
4  pecks  =  1  bushel 

Geometrical  Formulas. — To  find  the  circumference  of  a 
circle:  Multiply  the  given  diameter  by  3.1416. 

351 


352 


WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  FORMULAS 


To  find  the  diameter  of  a  circle:  Divide  the  given  circum- 
ference by  3.1416,  or  multiply  by  .3183. 

To  find  the  radius  of  a  circle:  Multiply  the  circumference 
by  .1591,  or  divide  the  diameter  by  2. 

To  find  the  area  of  a  circle :  Square  the  radius,  and  multiply 
by  3.1416,  or  square  the  diameter,  and  multiply  by  3.1416  and 
divide  by  4. 

To  find  the  area  of  a  circular  ring:  Subtract  the  area  of  the 
inner  circle  from  the  area  of  the  outer. 

To  find  the  area  of  a  triangle:  Multiply  the  base  by  one- 
half  the  altitude. 

To  find  the  area  of  a  square,  rectangle,  or  parallelogram  of 
any  shape,  multiply  the  base  by  the  altitude. 

To  find  the  area  of  a  trapezoid:  Multiply  the  altitude  by 
one-half  the  sum  of  the  parallel  sides. 


DECIMAL  EQUIVALENTS  FOR  COMMON  FRACTIONS 


Fraction 

Decimal 

Fraction 

Decimal 

1/16 

.0625 

9/16 

.5625 

i 

.125 

1 

.625 

3/16 

.1875 

11/16 

.6875 

i 

.25 

3 

4 

.75 

6/16 

.3125 

13/16 

.8125 

t 

.375 

7 
8 

.875 

7/16 

.4375 

15/16 

.9375 

h 

.5 

1 

1. 

Metric  Measure. — There  are  several  important  advantages 
in  the  use  of  the  metric  system,  as  compared  with  the  Enghsh 
system,  the  most  important  of  which  is  the  ease  of  handhng  the 
mathematical  operations  by  the  decimal.  The  English  system 
of  weights  and  measures  is  so  well  established  in  the  United 
States  that  the  metric  system  is  not  Ukely  to  displace  it  in  the 
near  future.  The  metric  system  is  used  largely  for  scientific 
work  in  this  country,  although  it  is  the  standard  measure  in 
many  countries.     In  farm  buildings  work  the  use  is  limited  to 


METRIC  EQUIVALENTS 


353 


work  done  for  South  American  or  European  countries,  either 
in  plan  work  or  in  farm  building  equipment. 

The  unit  of  linear  measure  is  the  meter  (39.37  inches),  and 
the  other  units  are  found  by  taking  decimal  parts  or  multiples 
of  the  meter.  The  centimeter  is  y^  meter  long.  The  milli- 
meter is  ToVo  of  1  meter.     The  kilometer  is  1000  meters. 

The  unit  of  volume  measure  is  the  liter  (1.0567  quarts)  for 
liquids,  and  the  same  unit  is  used  for  dry  measure,  and  equals 
.908  quart  dry  measure.  The  unit  of  weight  is  the  gram 
(15.432  grains),  and  is  the  weight  of  1  centimeter  of  water.  The 
kilogram  is  equal  to  2.20462  pounds. 

Metric  Equivalents. — The  following  table  shows  the  value 
of  the  more  common  English  units,  in  the  metric  system: 


English  Unit 

Metric  Equivalent 

1  inch 

2.54        centimeters 

Ifoot 

.3048    meter 

1  yard 

.9144    meter 

1  sq.  yd. 

.836      square  meter 

1  acre 

.4047    hectare 

1  mile 

1.60935  kilometers 

1  gallon 

3.7854    liters 

1  pound 

.4536  kilogram 

Miscellaneous  Data.— There  are  63,360  inches,  5280  feet, 
1760  yards,  320  rods  in  one  mile. 

One  acre  contains  43,560  square  feet,  or  4840  square  yards, 
and  is  about  209  feet  square. 

One  cubic  foot  contains  7.48  gallons,  or  .408  bushel. 

One  cubic  foot  of  water  weighs  62.4  pounds. 

One  gallon  of  water  weighs  8.36  pounds. 

There  are  231  cubic  inches  in  1  gallon. 

One  bushel  of  small  grain  contains  IJ  cubic  feet,  approx- 
imately.    One  bushel  of  ear  corn  contains  2^  cubic  feet. 

One  horsepower  =  550  foot-pounds  per  second  =  33,000  foot- 
pounds per  minute  =  746  watts  =  760  kilogram-meters  per  second. 


CHAPTER  XXXVII 

REFERENCE   TABLES   FOR   FARM   BUILDING   DESIGN 

The  handbook  data  given  in  the  following  pages  are  those 
most  frequently  needed  by  the  student  and  builder.  For  com- 
plete information  and  enlarged  tables,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
the  standard  handbook  of  the  building  trades,  "  Architect's 
and  Builder's  Pocketbook,"  by  Kidder. 

Bearing  Power  of  Soils. — Farm  buildings  should  be  set  with 
the  footings  below  the  frost  line,  and  on  firm  soil.  The  farm 
house,  barn,  and  silo  should  show  a  very  small  amount  of  settle- 
ment. The  footings  recommended  in  the  text  will  probably  not 
give  more  than  1  ton  per  square  foot  pressure  on  the  soil.  The 
bearing  power  of  soil  is  given  in  the  following  table : 


Material 

Tons  per  Square  Foot 

Rock,  sandstone  or  limestone.  .  . 
Dry  clay  on  thick  beds 

20  to  30 
4  to    6 
2  to    4 
Ito    2 
2  to    4 
2  to    4 

Moderately  dry  clay 

Soft  clay 

Clean  drv  sand 

Solid  and  dry  earth 

Tables  for  Proportioning  Concrete. — The  following  figures 
are  adapted  from  tables  by  the  Portland  Cement  Association. 
The  first  table  shows  the  resulting  volume  from  given  propor- 
tions, by  volume,  of  cement,  sand,  and  gravel.  The  second 
table  gives  the  amount  of  each  ingredient  required  to  produce 
1  cubic  yard  of  concrete. 

354 


WEIGHT  OF  MATERIALS  STORED  IN  FARM  BUILDINGS   355 


MATERIALS 


Mixture 

Cement, 

Sand, 

Gravel, 

Resulting  Volume, 

Bags 

Cu.Ft. 

Cu.Ft. 

Cu.Ft. 

1:1:^ 

1.5 

1.75 

2 

2.0 

, . 

2.10 

3 

3.0 

. . 

2.82 

2  :3 

2.0 

3.0 

3.90 

2  :4 

2.0 

4.0 

4.50 

2|  :5 

2.5 

5.0 

5.45 

MATERIAL  FOR  ONE  CUBIC  YARD 


Quantity  of  Materials 

Mixture 

Cement, 

Sand, 

Gravel, 

Bags 

Cu.Ft. 

Cu.Ft. 

1  :H 

15.48 

23.2 

1  :2 

12.84 

25.6 



1  :3 

9.56 

28.6 

1:2:3 

6.96 

14.0 

20.8 

1  :2  :4 

6.04 

12.2 

24.0 

1  :  2i  :  5 

4.96 

12.4 

24.8 

Weight  of  Materials  Stored  in  Farm  Buildings. — For  the 

calculation  of  the  various  members  of  the  structure  for  strength 
it  is  necessary  to  know  the  weights  of  various  materials  com- 
monly stored  about  the  farm  or  used  in  the  building.  The  table 
following  gives  the  weight  per  cubic  foot,  for  convenience,  and 
the  figures  do  not  represent  the  weight  per  bag,  bushel,  or 
other  unit; 


356     REFERENCE  TABLES  FOR  FARM   BUILDING  DESIGN 


Material 

Weight, 
Cu.Ft. 

Material 

Weight, 
Cu.Ft 

Alfalfa  seed 

48 

40 

40 
125 
480 
100 

48 

54 
150 

40 

27 

29 
100 

32 
120 

1 

Hay,  baled 

1^ 

Apples 

Hay,  loose. 

4 

Barlev 

Hemlock 

26 

Brick,  common 

Ice 

57 

Cast  iron 

Lime 

53 

Cement 

Limestone 

164 

Clover  seed 

Maple 

49 

Coal,  soft,  lump 

Oats 

27 

Concrete 

Potatoes 

48 

Cornmeal 

Red  Oak 

46 

Cottonseed 

Sand 

100 

Cvpress 

Shelled  corn 

47 

Earth,  rammed 

Fir 

Southern  pine 

Water . . 

38 
62  4 

Gravel 

White  Oak 

48 

Pounds  per  Bushel. — The  following  table  of  pounds  per 
bushel  is  based  on  the  Iowa  law,  which  corresponds  closely 
to  the  legal  specifications  in  other  States,  and  to  the  standards 
of  the  Federal  Government.  A  bushel  measure  contains  approx- 
imately l\  cubic  feet  of  volume, 


Material 

Legal  Weight, 
Bushel 

Material 

Legal  Weight, 
Bushel 

Alfalfa  seed 

Apples 

60 
48 
48 
60 
14 
20 
48 
40 
60 
60  to  80 

Corn,  shelled 

Cornmeal 

Millet  seed 

Oats 

56 
48 

Barley 

50 

Beans 

32 

Bluegrass  seed 

Onions 

52 

Bran 

Potatoes 

Rye 

Timothy  seed .  . . 
Wheat 

60 

Buckwheat 

Cherries 

56 
45 

Clover  seed 

Corn,  ear 

60 

TABLE  OF  BOARD  MEASURE 
WEIGHT  OF  WOOD  PER  BOARD  FOOT 


357 


Kind  of  Wood 

Weight,  Pounds 

Cedar                    

3.0 
3.1 
2.7 
2.1 
4.1 
2.6 
2.3 
3.2 

CvDress 

Douglas  fir 

Henilock       

Oak                         

Pinp   short  leaf        

Fine,  white 

Pine,  yellow,  Georgia 

Weight  of  Roof  Covering. — The  design  of  roof  framing  and 
trusses  must  take  into  account  the  weight  of  the  covering 
including  sheathing,  shingles,  tile,  etc.  The  average  weight 
of  the  material  used  in  roofing  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 


Material 

Weight  per  Square  Foot, 
Pounds 

Pine  sheathinc 

3.0 
2.0 
4.5 
2.25 
4.5 
2.5 
18.0 

Shingles,  wood 

Slate 

Corrugated  iron 

Asbestos  shingles 

Asphalt  roofing 

Tiles  plain         

Table  of  Board  Measure. — A  short  rule  for  finding  the  num- 
ber of  board  feet  in  a  piece  of  lumber  is  as  follows:  Multiply 
the  width  of  the  piece  in  inches  by  the  thickness  in  inches, 
divide  by  12,  and  multiply  by  the  length  of  the  piece  in  feet. 
For  instance,  to  find  the  number  of  board  feet  in  a  2  by  6,  16 
feet  long:  2X6=12.  Dividing  by  12  equals  1,  times  16=16 
board  feet.  After  a  small  amount  of  practice  the  work  can  be 
done  rapidly.  The  table  on  the  following  page  gives  the  board 
feet  in  the  common  sizes  of  lumber.  The  total  number  of  feet 
is  found  by  multiplying  the  number  of  pieces  by  the  figure  in 
the  table.     Lumber  is  usually  sold  by  the  thousand  feet. 


358     REFERENCE  TABLES  FOR  FARM  BUILDING  DESIGN 


TABLE  OF  BOARD   MEASURE 


Length  of  Piece 

in  Feet 

Size, 

Inches 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

IX  3 

:  2 

2h 

3 

3^ 

4 

4! 

5 

.  5! 

6 

IX  4 

;  2f 

3i 

4 

4! 

5! 

6 

6! 

7! 

8 

IX  6 

•  4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

IX  8 

i  5i 

6! 

8 

9! 

10! 

12 

13! 

14! 

16 

1X10 

;  61 

8i 

10 

11! 

13! 

15 

16! 

18! 

20 

1X12 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

2X  4 

5^ 

6! 

8 

9! 

10! 

12 

13! 

14! 

16 

2X  6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

2X  8 

10! 

13^ 

16 

18! 

21! 

24 

26! 

29! 

32 

2X10 

13^ 

16! 

20 

23! 

26! 

30 

33! 

36! 

40 

2X12 

16 

20 

24 

28 

32 

36 

40 

44 

48 

2X14 

181 

23! 

28 

32! 

37! 

42 

46! 

51! 

56 

3X  6 

12 

15 

18 

21 

24 

27 

30 

33 

36 

3X  8 

16 

20 

24 

28 

32 

36 

40 

44 

48 

3X10 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

55 

60 

3X12 

24 

30 

36 

42 

48 

54 

60 

66 

72 

3X14 

28 

35 

42 

49 

56 

63 

70 

77 

84 

4X  4 

10! 

13! 

16 

18! 

21! 

24 

26! 

29! 

32 

4X  6 

16 

20 

24 

28 

32 

36 

40 

44 

48 

4X  8 

2U 

26! 

32 

37! 

42! 

48 

53! 

58! 

64 

4X10 

26! 

33! 

40 

46! 

53! 

60 

66! 

77! 

80 

4X12 

32 

40 

48 

56 

64 

72 

80 

88 

96 

6X  6 

24 

32 

36 

42 

48 

54 

60 

66 

72 

6X  8 

32 

40 

48 

56 

64 

72 

80 

88 

96 

6X10 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

110 

120 

.  6X12 

48 

60 

72 

84 

96 

108 

120 

132 

144 

8X  8 

42! 

53! 

64 

74! 

85! 

96 

106! 

117! 

128 

8X10 

53i 

66! 

80 

93! 

106! 

120 

133! 

146! 

160 

8X12 

74 

80 

96 

112 

128 

144 

160 

176 

192 

10X10 

66! 

83! 

100 

116! 

133! 

150 

166! 

183! 

200 

10X12 

80 

100 

120 

140 

160 

180 

200 

220 

240 

12X12 

96 

120 

144 

168 

192 

216 

240 

264 

288 

LUMBER  WASTE 


359 


Lumber  Waste. — Dressed  lumber,  according  to  the  standard 
rules  for  sawing  and  grading,  does  not  contain  full  width  of 
material  when  dehvered  to  the  job.  Some  further  waste  is  due 
to  sawing  and  fitting  the  lumber  into  the  building.  To  cover  the 
usual  losses,  it  is  necessary  to  figure  in  excess  of  the  amount 
actually  needed.  The  following  percentage  of  increase  over  the 
nominal  estimates  are  made; 


Material 

Sizes,  Inches 

Add  to  Estimate 

Matched  lumber 

Matched  lumber 

Matched  lumber 

Shiplap 

Shiplap... 

Drop  siding 

21  to  3 

4 

6 

6  to  8 

10 

One-third 

One-fourth 

One-sixth 

One-fifth 

One-tenth 

One-fifth 

Lap- siding 

One-third 

Framing  lumber 

One-fifth 

Shingles  Required. — Shingles  average  4  inches  wide,  250 
to  the  bundle,  or  four  bundles  per  thousand.  A  square  of  roof, 
or  100  square  feet  is  the  unit  of  roof  surface.  The  figures  given 
below  are  based  on  the  number  of  shingles  per  square  for  differ- 
ent exposures ; 


Exposure,  Inches 

Number  of  Shingles 

4 
4i 
6 
6 

900 
800 
720 
600 

360      REFERENCE  TABLES  FOR  FARM  BUILDING  DESIGN 


NAILS  REQUIRED   FOR 

CARPENTRY   WORK 

Material 

Nails  in 
Pounds 

Size 
-d" 

1000  shingles 

3.5 

5 

8 
26 
20 
25 
15 
15 
20 

3 

1000  shingles 

4 

Lath,  per  M 

3 

Bridging  per  M  lineal  feet 

8 

Sheathing  per  M 

8 

Sheathing  per  M 

10 

Studding  per  M 

20 

Joists  per  M 

20 

Flooring  per  M 

8  to  10  finish 

Paint  Required. — Ready-mixed  paint  will  cover  about 
250  square  feet  of  surface  two  coats.  One  gallon  of  trim  is 
required  to  each  5  gallons  of  body  paint  on  average  buildings. 
Creosote  shingle  stain  will  cover  150  square  feet  one  coat  if 
brushed  on.  Dipping  requires  3  gallons  of  stain  for  each 
1000  shingles  treated.  Flat  paint  on  plaster  walls  will  cover 
200  square  feet  per  gallon  one  coat.  One  pound  of  calcimine 
wall  finish  will  cover  50  or  more  square  feet,  depending  on  the 
condition  of  the  wall. 

Labor  Quantities. — The  personal  factor  makes  any  estimate 
of  labor  quite  unsatisfactory.  The  figures  given  here  are  those 
commonly  considered  as  making  a  fair  day's  work,  although  it 
may  be  said  that  there  are  always  unlooked  for  delays  on  every 
job. 

One  man  will  complete  the  following  in  eight  hours: 

500  board  feet  studding,  joists  or  rafters. 
500  feet  sheathing. 

500  board  feet  shiplap  or  matched  lumber. 
350  board  feet  6-inch  flooring. 
350  feet  siding. 
1500  shingles. 

1000  board  feet  barn  boards. 
7  doors,  fit  and  hang. 
80  square  yards  painting,  smooth  work. 


LOADS  ON  STRUCTURES 


361 


Loads  on  Structures. — The  loads  on  buildings  that  must  be 
considered  in  the  design  may  be  classed  as  dead  loads,  wind 
and  snow  loads,  and  live  loads.  The  dead  load  is  made  up  of  the 
weight  of  the  material  making  up  the  building,  and  the  material 
stored.  The  hve  load  consists  of  moving  bodies,  people,  or 
animals.  The  hve  load  is  twice  as  severe  a  strain  on  the  build- 
ing as  the  dead  load. 

Live  Load. — The  usual  figures  for  live  load  are  not  especially 
adapted  to  farm  structures;  however,  they  show  the  effect  of 
moving  bodies,  and  must  be  considered  in  the  design  of  strength 
of  house-framing  members. 


Type  of  Structure 

Load  per  Square  Foot, 
Pounds 

Crowded  houses 

80 

50 

100 

100 

250 

Dwellings 

Schools,  churches,  theaters . . 
Dance  halls 

Warehouses 

Wind  and  Snow  Loads. — The  snow  load  is  not  effective  when 
the  pitch  of  the  roof  is  45°  or  more.  The  maximum  snow  load 
is  not  hkely  to  occur  when  the  full  wind  load  is  acting.  The 
following  figures  indicate  the  maximum  effect  of  snow  load  on  a 
J  pitch  roof  in  different  sections : 


Locality 

Maximum  Allowance, 
Pounds  per  Sq.Ft. 

Southern  States 

5 
20 
25 

30 

Central  States 

Rocky  Mountain,  and  N.  E. 
Northwest  States 

Wind  loads  act  at  right  angles  to  the  surface  of  the  roof. 
For  velocities  of  less  than  10  miles  per  hour  the  effect  is  negh- 
gible.     A  very  high  wind  of  80  miles  per  hour  will  exert  a 


362     REFERENCE  TABLES  FOR  FARM  BUILDING  DESIGN 


pressure  of  30  pounds.     For  safe  design,  40  pounds  is  taken  as  a 
maximum. 

Safe  Working  Stresses  in  Bending. — The  following  figures 
are  those  commonly  used  as  the  safe  stress  per  square  inch  in 
bending,  from  which  to  figure  the  size  of  beams,  joists,  or  girders. 
Building  codes  of  some  cities  specify  the  bending  stresses  to  be 
used.  The  safe  stress  is  taken  at  about  one-tenth  of  the  break- 
ing load. 


Material 

Safe  Stress, 
Pounds  per   Sq.In. 

White  oak . . 

1200 

1200 

800 

800 

600 

Southern  pine 

Cvoress 

Douglas  fir 

Hemlock 

Beam  Formulas. — A  discussion  of  the  design  of  beams  has 
been  given  elsewhere  in  the  text.  The  maximum  external 
moment,  or  the  moment  due  to  the  load  appUed  depends  on  the 
manner  of  loading  and  the  method  of  support.  The  figures 
below  indicate  the  maximum  moment  in  foot-pounds,  and  inch- 
pounds,  for  the  beams  commonly  found  in  farm  buildings : 

W= total  load,  in  pounds. 
L  =  length  of  span  in  feet. 
L  X 12  =  inch  pounds. 


Kind  of  Beam 

Manner  of  Loading 

Maximum  Moment. 

Ft.Lbs. 

In.Lbs. 

Simple 
Simple 
Cantilever 
Cantilever 

Uniform  distributed 
Concentrated  at  center 
Uniform  Distributed 
Concentrated  at  end 

iWL 

1  WL 

^  WL 

WL 

|WL 

3    WL 

6    WL 

12    WL 

SAFE  LOAD  FOR  BEAMS 


363 


The  internal  resisting  moment  is  usually  figured  in  inch- 
pounds,  in  which  case  the  maximum  moment  must  also  be  taken 
in  inch-pounds. 

Safe  Load  for  Beams. — The  figures  in  the  table  below  are 

given  for  ease  of  determining  the  correct  size  of  beam  for 

conditions  commonly  found  in  farm  structures.     The  loading  is 

for  a  simple  beam,  with  uniform  distributed  load.     The  safe 

stress  in  bending  is  taken  as  1200  for  yellow  pine,  the  most 

common  framing  material.     Figures  are  given  for  a  beam  1  inch 

b(Ps 
wide.     The  formula  used  in  the  calculation  is  —^=iWL. 

h  is  taken  as  1  inch  d  or  depth  of  beam  is  given,  s  is  1200,  L  is  the 
span  in  feet,  given,  and  LX 12  =  inch-pounds.  W  or  total  safe 
load  is  the  quantity  shown  in  the  body  of  the  table: 


Span  in  Feet 

Depth  of  Beam, 

Inches 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

i 

4 

267 

213 

178 

152 

133 

118 

6 

600 

479 

400 

342 

299 

266 

8 

1067 

851 

710 

608 

531 

474 

10 

1667 

1333 

1110 

950 

830 

740 

12 

2400 

1915 

1598 

1368 

1195 

1066 

14 

3267 

2607 

2176 

1862 

1626 

1450 

For  beams  wider  than  1  inch,  multiply  the  above  figures  by 
the  width  of  the  beam  in  inches.  For  load  concentrated  at  the 
center  divide  the  figures  by  2.  For  oak  beams  use  the  same 
figures.  For  fir,  use  two-thirds  of  the  above  figures,  and  for 
hemlock  use  one-half. 

Example. — Find  the  safe  uniformly  distributed  load  for  a 
2  by  12-inch,  hemlock  joist,  span  12  feet.  The  above  table 
shows  1598.  For  2-inch  width  the  safe  load  is  2  X 1598,  or  3196. 
The  safe  stress  for  hemlock  is  600,  so  the  figure  must  then  be 
divided  by  2,  leaving  the  actual  figure  in  the  table  of  1598  as 
the  safe  load. 


364     REFERENCE  TABLES  FOR  FARM  BUILDFNG  DESIGN 

Safe  Load  for  Columns. — The  load  on  columns  consists  of 
the  weight  of  stored  material,  hve  load,  and  the  weight  of  the 
material  in  the  building.  This  load  can  be  determined  quite 
accurately.  The  following  table  based  on  figures  by  Kidder 
gives  the  safe  load  for  yellow  pine  posts.  Oak  posts  will  support 
approximately  the  same  load  safely. 


SAFE  LOAD   IN   TONS   FOR  YELLOW  PINE   POSTS 


Length  in  Feet 

Size  of  Post, 

Inches 

8 

10 

12 

14 

4X  6 

9.1 

8.4 

7.7 

6X  6 

15.1 

14.4 

13.7 

12.9 

6X  8 

20.2 

19.2 

18.3 

17.3 

8X  8 

32.0 

27.2 

26.3 

25.3 

8X10 

40.0 

34.0 

32.8 

31.6 

10X10 

«,,                            

50.0 

50.0 

42.8 

41.0 

Steel  Columns,  Concrete  Filled. — The  use  of  steel  columns  in 
farm  buildings  makes  it  desirable  to  understand  the  capacity  for 
loading  in  comparison  with  wood  posts.  The  James  Manufac- 
turing Company  furnished  the  following  table,  based  on  new 
steel  tubes,  filled  with  concrete  at  the  factory: 


Diameter  of  Post, 

Length  of  Feet 

Inches 

6 

7 

8 

8^ 

9 

31 
4i 
6 

9.0 
14.0 
20.25 

8.5 
13.5 
20.0 

8.3 
13.0 
19.5 

8.0 
12.7 
19.25 

7.5 
12.5 
19.0 

INDEX 


A-shaped  hog  house,  111 
Acetylene  lighting,  262 
Advantages  of  movable  hog  houses, 

109 
Air,  amount  breathed,  91 
— ,  breathed,  91 
— ,  fresh,  91 
— ,  rate  of  flow,  93 
— ,  standard  of  purity,  92 
Alfalfa  rack  for  swine,  199 
Alleys,  feed  and  htter,  12 
— ,  horse  barn,  19 
Alterations  in  contract,  322 
Amount  ice  required,  186 
Animal  shelters,  192 
Annular  rings,  280 
Appearance  of  barns,  48 

garage,  179 

silo,  157 

Area  of  air  flues,  96 
Arrangement  of  farmstead,  270 

machine  shed,  176 

tenant  house,  237 

Artificial  heat  in  hog  house,  108 

Asbestos  shingles,  289 

Ash,  282 

Asphalt  roll  roofing,  288 

—  shingles,  288 

Attic  tank  systems,  252 

Baby  beef  barns,  31 
Balloon  frame  construction,  222 
Barn,  classification  of,  57 
— ,  common  features,  52 


Barn,  construction,  64 

—  doors,  52 

—  equipment,  40 

—  heights,  60 

—  remodeling,  39 
— ,  round,  58 

—  shapes,  57 

—  stairs,  55 
— ,  standard,  63 

—  use,  57 

—  uses,  undesirable,  51 

—  ventilation,  90 

—  windows,  53 
Barns,  appearance  of,  48 
— ,  baby  beef,  31 
— ,  beef,  25 

— ,  breeding  stock  beef,  30 
— ,  ceiling  height  of  dairy,  7 
— ,  convenience  of,  50 
— ,  dairy,  6 
— ,  essentials  of,  48 
— ,  essentials  of  beef,  25 
— ,  framing  of,  74 
— ,  length  of  dairy,  7 
— ,  location  of  beef,  25 
— ,  location  of  dairy,  7 
— ,  sanitation  of,  50 
Basement,  238 
Bathroom,  216,  238 
Battery,  electric  light  plant,  264 
Beam,  collar,  66 
— ,  —  definition,  346 
— ,  definition,  312 
— ,  design  of,  definition,  314 

365 


366 


INDEX 


Beam,  formulas,  362 
— ,  safe  loads  for,  363 
Bearing  power  of  soils,  354 
Bed  rooms,  216 

,  tenant  house,  238 

Beef  barns,  25 

,  sanitary  requirements  of,  28 

,  size  of,  26 

,  types  of,  25 

Bending  moment,  definition,  314 

—  stresses,  safe,  definition,  314 
— ,  safe  stresses  in,  362 

Bent,  66 

Bids,  321 

— ,  competitive,  333 

Bins,  overhead,  148 

Birch,  282 

Black  walnut,  282 

Blaugas,  262 

Blocks,  cement,  301 

Board  measure,  table  of,  357 

Bonds,  brick,  305 

Box  stalls,  12 

Braced  rafter  frame,  78 

Bracing,  72 

Breeding  crate  for  hogs,  202 

—  rack  for  cattle,  203 

—  stock  barns,  30 
Brick  and  hollow  tile,  303 

—  bonds,  305 

—  burning,  303 

— ,  classification  of,  304 

—  construction,  points  on,  306 

—  drying,  303 

—  in  walls,  305 

—  molding,  303 
— ,  quality  of,  304 

—  silos,  166 

— ,  sizes  of,  304 

Bridging,  223 

Broadleaf  trees,  279 

Buildings,  capital  invested  in  farm,  2 

— ,  codes,  316 

— ,  combination,  193 

■ — ,  development  of  farm,  1 


Buildings,  grain  storage,  143 

— ,  losses  due  to  poor  farm,  2 

— ,  minor,  189 

Bull  pens,  13 

Bunk  room,  239 

Bunks,  cattle  feed,  194,  195 

Bushel,  pounds  in,  356 

Calf  pens,  13 

Capacity  of  grain  storage  buildings, 
145 

silo,  158 

Care  of  septic  tank,  260 
Carefulness,  319 
Carpentry,  324 
Carriers,  litter  and  feed,  44 
Cattle  breeding  rack,  203 

—  feed  bunks,  194,  195 

—  self  feeders,  200 

—  stocks,  205 
Cedar,  281 

Ceiling  height  of  dairy  barn,  7 

horse  barn,  19 

Cement,  definition,  290 

—  and  concrete,  290 

—  blocks,  301 

—  marketing,  291 

—  mortar,  299 

—  staves,  302 

—  stave  silo,  169 
: —  stucco,  302 

—  used  annually,  291 
Chutes,  hay,  56 

— ,  silo,  161 

Cinders,  292 

Cistern,  water  storage,  252 

Clays,  303 

Classes  of  feeding  barns,  29 

Classification  of  barns,  57 

brick,  304 

wood,  279 

Cleaning  up,  323 

Closure  tile,  309 

Codes,  building,  316 

Cold  weather  concreting,  299 


INDEX 


367 


Collar  beam,  66 

,  definition,  346 

Colony  poultry  house,  141 
Color  in  brick,  303 
Columns,  65,  70 
— ,  definition  of,  315 
Combination  buildings,  193 

—  garage,  182 

—  roof  hog  house,  111,  121 

poultry  house,  142 

Community  hog  house,  114 

essentials,  114 

,  types  of,  121 

—  poultry  house,  141 

Compact  housing  in  hog  house,  114 
Competitive  bids,  333 
Completion,  time  of,  321 
Concrete  block  silo,  168 

—  fence  posts,  301 

—  finishing,  298 

—  floors,  14,  299,  324 

—  forms,  296 

—  foundations,  300 

—  mixing,  295 

—  mixture,  dry,  294 

,  medium  wet,  294 

,  wet,  295 

—  placing,  296 

—  proportioning,  292 
,  table  for,  304 

—  reinforcing,  297 

—  walks,  300 

—  walls,  301 

Concreting  in  cold  weather,  299 
Conditions  affecting  cost,  326 
Conifers,  278 

Construction,  balloon  frame,  222 
— ,  barn,  64 

—  of  barns,  50 

—  of  brickwork,  306 
— ,  economy  of,  57 

— ,  factors  affecting,  64 
— ,  farm  house,  221 
— , roof,  226 

—  of  farm  shop,  182 


Construction,  fire-resisting,  317 

—  of  flues  (ventilating),  98,  101 
— ,  garage,  180 

—  of  grain  storage  buildings,  146 
— ,  hog  house,  116 

— ,  ice  house,  186 
— ,  machine  shed,  177 
— ,  materials  of,  62 
— ,  minor  building,  189 
— ,  movable  hog  house,  112 
— ,  poultry  house,  136 
— ,  terms  used  in  roof,  345 
Contours,  271 
Contracts,  325 

—  and  specifications,  320 
Conveniences,  feeding,  15 
Cork  brick  floors,  14 
Corner  posts,  203 
Cornice,  232 

Cost  of  farm  buildings,  334 

estimating,  326 

silo,  157 

Cow  stalls,  9 

Crate,  hog  breeding,  202 

— ,  ringing,  205 

— ,  shipping,  204 

Creeps,  lamb,  33,  34 

Creosoted  stave  silos,  166 

Crib  walls,  148 

—  ventilators,  154 
Cupolas,  102 
Cups,  watering,  43 
Curb,  dairy  barn,  11 
Cutting,  rafter,  346 
Cypress,  281 

Dairy  barns,  6 

—  curb,  11 

—  gutter,  11 

—  manger,  10 

—  stable  in  general  barn,  17 
Dakota  type  hog  house,  123 
Damage,  322 

Data,  miscellaneous,  353 
Defects  of  woods,  283 


36a: 


INDEX 


Delays,  322 

Design  of  beams,  definition,  312 

—  —  ventilating   system  in   hog 

house,  133 
Details,  drawing,  322 
— ,  framing,  88 
Determining  rafter  cuts,  346 

lengths,  347 

Development  of  farm  buildings,  2 

house,  207 

Dimensions,  342 

Dining  room,  213 

Dipping  vat,  206 

Dirt  floors,  13 

Disadvantages     of    movable     hog 

house,  110 
Disposal  of  sewage,  257 
Division  of  poultry  house,  139 
Door  frames,  228 
Doors,  286 
— ,  barn,  52 

— ,  dwelling  house,  233,  234 
— ,  hog  house,  117 
— ,  poultry  house,  139 
— ,  sUo,  161 
Dormitory,  217 

Double  chamber  septic  tank,  260 
Drainage  of  ice  houses,  185 

gutter  in  hog  house,  118 

dairy  barn,  15 

Drains,  hog  house,  118 

Drawing,  isometric,  338 

— ,  kinds  of,  338 

— ,  method  of,  340 

— ,  paper,  337 

— ,  plan,  335 

— ,  working,  339 

Drawings,  322 

Durability  of  hog  house,  114 

silos,  156 

Economy  of  construction,  51 

of  tenant  house,  239 

Electric  lighting,  263 
plant  parts,  264 


Electric  lighting  plant  battery,  264 

engine,  264 

generator,  264 

switchboard,  264 

Elevating  machinery,  152 
Endogenous  trees,  279 
Engine,  electric  light  plant,  264 
Equal,  similar  or,  322 
Equipment,  barn,  40 
— ,  farm  home,  240 
— ,  farm  shop,  181 
— ,  feeding  barn,  47 
— ,  horse  barn,  46 
— ,  lightning  rod,  317 

—  of  poultry  house,  140 

—  for  sheep  raising,  34 

— ,  selection,  care  and  use  of  draw- 
ing, 336 
Equivalents,  metric,  353 
Essentials  of  barns,  48 

beef  barns,  25 

general  barns,  33 

grain  storage  buildings,  157 

hog  houses,  116 

horse  barns,  18 

ice  houses,  184 

machine  sheds,  173 

sheep  barns,  35 

silos,  156 

Estimating,  accurate,  327 
— ,  methods  of,  326,  328 
by  cubing,  327 

—  the  square,  327 

—  accommodation  units,  327 
order  of,  328 

Excavation,  323,  329 
Exogenous  trees,  279 

Factor  of  safety,  definition,  312 
Farm  buildings,  cost  of,  334 
,  mechanics  of,  311 

—  home  equipment,  240 
heating,  241 

—  house,  basement  of,  218 
,  bathroom  of,  216 


INDEX 


369 


Farm  house,  bedrooms  in,  216 

,  closets  in,  218 

,  construction  of,  221 

,  development  of,  207 

,  dining  room  in,  213 

,  dormitory  in,  217 

footings,  221 

foundations,  221 

,  fruit  and  vegetable  storage 

in,  214 

,  grouping  of  parts  in,  219 

,  the  ideal,  210 

kitchen,  212 

,  laimdry  in,  216 

,  library  in,  215 

,  living  room  in,  214 

,  —  porch  on,  214 

,  music  room  in,  215 

,  office  of,  215 

,  pantry  of,  214 

,  parts  of,  212 

,  planning  of  the,  211 

,  sleeping  porch  in,  217 

,  stairs,  217 

,  suggestions  in  planning  the, 

219 

,  toilet  in  the,  216 

,  types    of     construction    of, 

221 

—  layout,  277 

—  lighting,  262 
Farmstead  arrangement,  270 

—  grouping,  268 

—  location,  270 

—  planning,  268 
Farmsteads,  types  of,  272 
Feeding  floors,  300 
Fence  posts,  concrete,  301 
Finish,  interior,  227 
Finishes,  wood,  235 
Finishing  concrete,  298 
Fir,  281 

Fire  prevention,  316 

—  protection,  317 
on  farm;  317 


Fire  resisting  construction,  317 

Fixtures,  lighting,  332 

— ,  plumbing,  256 

Floors,  concrete,  299,  324 

— ,  feeding,  300 

— ,  tile,  307 

Floor  tile,  307 

Flooring,  227 

Footings  of  farm  house,  221 

Forms  for  concrete,  296 

Formulas,  beam,  362 

— ,  geometrical,  351 

— ,  weight,  measures  and,  351 

Foundations,  323 

— ,  concrete,  300 

— ,  farm  house,  221 

Frames,  door,  228 

— ,  window,  228 

Framing,  gambrel  roof,  349 

— ,  hip  roof,  349 

— ,  rafter,  345 

Fruit  and  vegetable  storage,  214 

Furnace,  hot  air,  241 

Gable  roof  framing,  76 

hog  house,  123 

movable  hog  house,  110 

poultry  house,  142 

Gambrel  roof  framing,  349 

hog  house,  122 

Garage,  178 
— ,  appearance  of,  179 
— ,  combination,  182 
— ,  construction  of,  180 
— ,  fireproofing,  179 

—  Ughting,  180 
— ,  size  of,  178 

Gates  of  hog  house,  117 
General  barns,  35 

,  essentials  of,  35 

,  legal  requirements  of,  35 

,  width  of,  38 

Generator,  electric  light  plant,  264 
Girders,  65,  70 

—  in  farm  house  cpiistruction,  22| 


370 


INDEX 


Glazed  tile,  310 
Glazing,  324 
Gothic  roof  framing,  86 
Grades  of  lumber,  285 
Grain  in  wood,  280 

—  handling,  154 

—  storage  buildings  on  farmstead, 

143,  275 

capacity,  145 

construction,  145 

,  essentials  of,  151 

,  floors  of,  145 

,  foundation  of,  145 

,  height  of,  145 

,  hollow  tile,  149 

,  length  of,  144 

,  location  of,  143 

,  roof  construction  of,  149 

,  shape  of,  145 

,  ties  and  braces  in,  149 

,  width  of,  144 

Gravel,  292 

Gravity  water  systems,  252 

—  grain  spouting,  152 
Grouping,  farmstead,  268 

—  parts  of  farm  house,  219 
Guarantees  in  contracts,  322     • 
Gutter  in  dairy  barn,  11 

Half  monitor  hog  house,  122 

poultry  house,  142 

Handling  grain,  154 
Hardware,  324 
Hardwoods,  279 
Hay  chutes,  56 
Heating,  324 
— ,  farm  house,  241 
— ,  hot  water,  247 
— ,  steam,  244 
— ,  temporary,  323 
Heartwood,  279 
Height  of  barns,  60 

grain  storage  buildings,  145 

Hemlock,  281 

35ip  j-af ter,  definition  of,  346 


Hip  rafter  framing,  349 
Hog  breeding  crate,  202 
Hog  house,  A-shape,  111 

,  combination  roof.  111,  121 

,  community,  114 

,  compact  housing  in,  114 

construction,  107,  116,  119 

equipment,  108 

essentials,  106 

,  Dakota  type,  123 

—  —  doors,  1 17 

drains,  118 

floors,  119 

foundations,  119 

,  gable  roof.  111,  123 

,  gambrel  roof,  122 

gates,  117 

,  half  monitor,  122 

,  Iowa  type,  123 

length,  117 

location,  116 

,  monitor  roof,  121 

,  Nebraska  type,  123 

on  farmstead,  274 

pen  panels,  117 

pens,  116 

planning,  107 

— •  —  roof  framing,  121 

sanitation,  107,  124 

,  sanitary  features  of,  114 

,  shed  roof  type,  121 

,  troughs  in,  117 

,  types  of  community,  121 

walls,  120 

width,  116 

—  wallow,  198 

—  waterer,  202 

Hollow  tile,  construction  in  grain 
storage  buildings,  149 

,  brick  and,  303 

,  building,  306 

floors,  13 

silo,  166 

Horse  barn,  18 

—  — ,  alleys  in,  .19 


INDEX 


371 


Horse  barn,  box  stalls  in,  20 

,  ceilins,  height  of,  19 

equipment,  47 

,  essentials  of,  18 

,  feed  and  hay  storage  in,  20 

,  floors  in,  22 

,  location  of,  19 

,  standing  stalls  in,  20 

Hot  air  furnace,  241 

—  water  heating,  247 
House,  ice,  183 

— ,  location  of  tenant,  236 
— ,  milk,  190 

—  on  farmstead,  274 
— ,  pump,  190 

—  stairs,  231 
— ,  scale,  190 
— ,  seed,  191 
— ,  smoke,  189 
— ,  spring,  190 
— ,  tenant,  236 
Hurdles,  sheep,  34 
Hydro-pneumatic  systems,  254 

Ice  houses,  183 

,  construction  of,  186 

,  drains  of,  185 

,  essentials  of,  184 

,  insulation  of,  184 

,  space  requirements  in,  185 

,  types  of,  183 

,  ventilation  of,  185 

—  supply,  187 
Ideal  farm  house,  210 
Interior  finish,  227 

Internal   resisting   stresses,    defini- 
tion of,  314 
Insulation  of  ice  houses,  184 
Insurance,  321 
Isometric  drawing,  338 
Iowa  type  hog  house,  123 

Jack  rafter,  346 

Joists,  65,  71 

•—  in  farm  house,  223 


Kinds  of  windows  in  hog  house,  131 

drawings,  338 

King  system  of  ventilation,  95 
Kitchen  in  farm  house,  212 
tenant  house,  237 

—  ventilation,  267 

Labor  quantities,  360 

Lamb  creeps,  33,  34 

Lath  and  plaster,  225,  324 

Laundry,  216 

Laws,  local,  321 

Layout  of  roof,  76 

— ,  farm,  277 

Legal  requirements  in  general  bam, 

35 
Length,  dairy  barns,  7 
— ,  grain  storage  buildings,  144 
— ,  hog  house,  116 
Lettering,  343 
Levels,  surveys  and,  323 
Library,  215 
Lighting,  acetylene,  262 
— ,  Blaugas,  262 
— ,  electric,  263 
— ,  farm,  262 

—  fixtures,  332 
— ,  garage,  180 
Lightning  protection,  318 

—  rod  equipment,  319 
Lintels  for  tile  wall,  308 
Litter  alley,  44 

Live  loads,  361 

Living  room,  214 

in  tenant  house,  238 

—  porch,  214 

Load,  safe,  definition  of,  312 
Loadings,  definition  of,  312 
Loads,  for  beams,  safe,  363 
columns,  364 

—  live,  361 
— ,  snow,  361 
— ,  wind,  361 

—  on  structures,  361 
Local  laws,  321 


872 


INDEX 


Location  of  beef  cattle  barns,  25 

dairy  barns,  7 

farmstead,  270 

grain  storage  buildings,  143 

hog  house,  116 

hog  house  windows,  127 

horse  barn,  19 

machine  sheds,  174 

silos,  157 

tenant  house,  236 

windows  on  plan,  130 

Loft  floors,  73 

Lookouts,  65 

Losses  due  to  poor  buildings,  2 

Lumber  grades,  285 

—  measure,  285 
—,  rough,  330 

—  sizes,  286 
— ,  waste,  359 

Machine  sheds,  172 

on  farmstead,  275 

Machinery,  elevating,  152 

Mangers,  42,  195 

— ,  dairy,  10 

— ,  feed  alley,  196 

Manure,  handling  of,  28 

—  pit,  204 
Maple,  282 

Marketing  cement,  291 
Masonry,  324,  329 

—  silos,  166 

—  walls,  68 
Materials,  322 

—  of  construction,  62 

—  for  drawing,  335 
— ,  rejected,  322 

— ,  weights  of  standard,  355 

Maximum  moment,  value  of,  defini- 
tion, 313 

Measure,  lumber,  285 

— ,  metric,  352 

— ,  table  of  board,  357 

Measures,  standard  formulas, 
weights  and,  351 


Mechanical  refrigeration,  267 
Mechanics  of  farm  buildings,  311 
Methods  of  drawing,  340 

estimating,  326 

— •  —  pumping,  250 

specification  writing,  320 

Metric  equivalent,  353 

—  measure,  352 
Milk  house,  190 

—  room,  15 
Millwork,  227,  324,  329 
Minor  buildings,  189 

,  construction,  189 

Miscellaneous  data,  353 
Mixing  concrete,  295 
Mixture,  dry,  294 

— ,  medium  wet,  294 

— ,  wet,  295 

Modulus,  section,  definition  of,  312 

Moldings,  234 

Moment,  bending,  312 

— ,  definition  of,  313 

—  of  inertia,  definition  of,  312 
Monitor  roof  hog  house,  121 
Monolithic  concrete  silo,  169 
Mortar,  cement,  299 

— ,  definition  of,  304 
Motive  powers  in  ventilation,  93 
Movable  hog  house,  advantages  of, 
109 

,  construction,  112 

,  disadvantages  of,  110 

,  types  of,  110 

Music  room,  215 

Nails  required,  360 

Names,  321 

Nature  of  soil,  272 

Nebraska  type  of  hog  house,  123 

Nesting  place  in  hog  house,  118 

Office,  farm,  215 
Oils  and  fuels  in  garage,  179 
Order  of  estimating,  328 
Original  work,  343 


INDEX 


373 


Outside  tank  system,  253 
Overhead  bins,  148 
—  costs,  333 


Painting,  332 

—  and  glazing,  324 
Paint  required,  360 
Panel  silo,  164 

Panels  of  pens  in  hog  house,  117 

Pantry,  214 

Paper,  drawing,  337 

Part  for  administration,  214 

recreation,  214 

sanitation,  216 

service,  217 

serving  foods,  212 

sleep  and  rest,  216 

Partitions,  stall,  42 
Parts  of  farm  electric  light  plant, 
264 

house,  212 

Pavements,  concrete,  300 

Payments,  321 

Pen,  scale,  204 

Pens,  43 

— ,  bull,  13 

— ,  calf,  13 

— ,  cow,  12 

—  in  hog  house,  117 
Pier,  definition  of,  65 
Pig  fenders,  118 
Pine,  white,  281 

— ,  yellow,  281 
Piping  systems,  247 
Pit,  manure,  204 

—  silos,  170 
Placing  concrete,  296 
Plan  drawing,  335 

—  of  farm  shop,  181 

Plank  frame,  definition  of,  65,  70 

truss,  81 

Planning  farm  house,  211 

—  farmstead,  268 

—  hog  house,  107 


Planting  on  farmstead,  275 
Plastering,  331 
Plaster,  lath  and,  225,  324 
Plates,  definition  of,  65 
Plumbing,  324,  332 

—  fixtures,  256 
Pneumatic  water  systems,  255 
Poplar,  282 

Porches,  tenant  house,  238 
Post,  corner,  203 
Poultry  houses,  135 

,  colony,  141 

,  combination  roof,  142 

,  community,  141  ~^ 

,  construction,  136 

,  doors,  139 

,  equipment,  140 

floors,  136 

,  gable  roof,  142 

,  half  monitor  roof,  142 

roof,  138 

,  shed  roof  type,  142 

,  size  of,  135 

J  types  of,  140 

ventilation,  139 

Pounds,  per  bushel,  356 
Pressure  water  systems,  254 
Prevention,  fire,  316 
Privy,  temporary,  323 
Problem  of  ventilation,  105 
Profit,  333 
Proportioning  concrete,  292 

table,  354 

Proportions,  standard  for  concrete, 

293 
Protection,  272,  322 
— ,  fire,  317 
— ,  —  on  farm,  317 
— ,  lightning,  318 

—  of  machinery,  173 
P*ump  house,  190 
Pumping,  methods  of,  250 
Purlin,  definition  of,  65 
Purpose  of  text,  4 

bam  ventilation,  90 


374 


INDEX 


Qualities  of  wood,  282 
Quality  of  brick,  304 
Quantities,  labor,  360 

Racks,  alfalfa  for  swine,  199 

— ,  cattle  breeding,  203 

— ,  feeding,  195 

— ,  wall  feed,  196 

Radiators,  hot  water,  245 

— ,  steam,  245 

Rafter,  definition  of,  346 

—  cuts,  347 

—  cutting,  definition  of,  346 

—  framing  and  cutting,  345 
— ,  hip,  definition  of,  346 
— ,  jack,  definition  of,  346 

—  lengths,  347 
Raising  studding,  224 
Rat-proofing,  151 
Rate  of  air  flow,  93 

silage  feeding,  158 

Reactions,  definition  of,  313 
Refrigeration,  mechanical,  267 
Reinforcement  of  silo,  162 

—  in  concrete,  297 
Rejected  materials,  322 
Remodeling  barn,  38 
Required  nails,  360 

—  paint,  360 

—  shingles,  359 
Requirements,     legal    for    general 

barn,  35 
— ,  sanitary  for  beef  barn,  28 
— ,  space  for  sheep,  33 
Reserved  rights,  321 
Ribbon  board,  definition,  of,  65 
Ridge,  defi.nition  of,  345 
Rights,  reserved,  321 
Ringing  crate,  205 
Rise,  definition  of,  346 
Roof,  324 

—  construction,  farm  house,  226 
,  grain  storage  buildings,  149 

—  covering,  weights  of,  357 
— f  gable  framing,  76 


Roof,  gambrel,  76 
— ,  layout,  76 
— ,  poultry  house,  138 
— ,  self-supporting,     definition     of, 
65 

—  shapes,  61 

—  sheathing,  227 
— ,  silo,  161 

—  trusses,  definition  of,  315 
Roofing,  asphalt  roll,  288 
— ,  galvanized  metal,  289 
— ,  tile,  289 

Roofs,  types  of,  345 

Room,  harness,  23 

— ,  milk,  15 

Rooms  in  main  house,  239 

Rough  lumber,  320 

Round  barn,  58 

Run,  definition  of,  345 

Runways,  outside,  108 

Rutherford  system,  95 

Safe  bending  stresses,  362 

—  construction,  319 

—  load,  definition  of,  312 

—  loads  for  beams,  363 

colunms,  364 

Safety,  factor  of,  312 

Sand,  291 

Sanitation  of  barns,  50 

hog  house,  114 

Sapwood,  279 

Sash,  window,  286 

Sawing,  lumber,  284 

Scaffolding,  322 

Scale  pens,  204 

Scales  for  drawing,  337 

Seasoning  woods,  285 

Section  modulus,  definition  of,  312 

Self-feeders,  cattle,  200 

,  swine,  199 

SeK-supporting  roof,  definition  of, 

65 
Separation  of  stock,  36 
Septic  tanks,  care  of,  261 


INDEX 


375 


Septic  tanks  construction,  260 

size,  260 

Service,  professional  farm  building, 

3 
Shape  of  barns,  57 

roofs,  61 

grain  storage  buildings,  145 

Shear,  definition  of,  313 
Sheathing,  definition  of,  65,  72 
Shed  roof  hog  house,  121 

poultry  house,  142 

Sheep  barns,  32 

,  essentials,  32 

,  space  requirements  of,  33 

,  types  of,  33 

—  hurdles,  34 

—  raising  equipment,  34 
Shelling  trench,  152 
Shelter  in  winter,  27 
Shelters,  types  of  sheep,  33 
Shingles,  asbestos,  289 

— ,  acphalt,  288 

— ,  required,  359 

— ,  wood,  287 

Shipping  crate,  204 

Siding,  72 

Sills,  definition  of,  65,  69 

Silo  tile,  309 

absorption,  309 

Similar  or  equal,  322 

Site,  building,  323 

Size,  brick,  304 

— ,  feeding  barn,  26 

— ,  flues  for  ventilating,  96 

— ,  lumber,  286 

— ,  windows  in  hog  house,  131 

Single-chamber  septic  tank,  260 

Slate,  289 

Sloping  floors,  148 

Small  barn,  38 

Snow  loads,  361 

Social  factors,  271 

Soft-woods,  279 

Soil,  nature  of,  272 

Soils,  bearing  power  of,  354 


Spacing  of  ventilating  flues,  98 

Span,  definition  of,  345 

Special  tile,  307 

Specifications,  contracts  and,  320 

— ,  method  of  writing,  320 

Square,  estimating  by  the,  327 

Stairs,  barn,  55 

Stall  construction,  21 

— ,  partitions,  42 

Stalls,  42 

— ,  box,  12,  20,  43 

— ,  cow,  9 

— ,  standing,  20 

Stanchions,  41 

Standard  air  purity,  92 

—  barns,  63 

—  proportion  in  concrete,  293 
Staves,  cement,  302 

Stock  tanks,  200 

Stocks,  cattle,  205 

Storage,  feed  and  hay,  24 

— ,  tank,  200,  201 

Strain,  definition  of,  311 

Strength,    ultimate,    definition    of, 

311 
Stress,  definition  of,  311 

—  in  bending,  safe,  362 
Stresses,  safe  bending,  definition  of, 

314 
— ,  internal  resisting,  definition  of, 

314 
Structures,  load  on,  361 
Stucco,  cement,  302 
Studding,  definition  of,  65 
Suggestions,  325 

Sunlight  in  hog  house  construction, 
125 

,  east  and  west,  126 

,  north  and  south,  125 

individual  hog  houses,  124 

—  table,  129 
Surveys  and  levels,  323 
Swine  feeding  floor,  197 
Switch-board,       electric      lighting 

plant,  264 


376 


INDEX 


Systems  of  ventilation,  95,  132 

— ,  King,  95,  132 

— ,  Rutherford,  95,  132 

Table,  water,  225 

—  of  sunUght,  129 

board  measure,  357 

Tank  on  silo,  171 
Tanks,  septic,  259,  260 
— ,  stock,  200,  201 

— ,  storage,  200,  201 
Temperature  control,  103 
Temporary  heat,  323 

—  privy,  323 

Tenant  house  arrangement,  237 

,  basement  of,  238 

,  bathroom,  238 

,  bedrooms,  238 

,  dining  room,  238 

,  economy  of  construction,  239 

location,  236 

size,  237 

utilities,  238 

Tests,  ventilation,  103 

Tile,  absorption  of  silo,  309 

— ,  closure,  309 

' — ,  curved,  310 

— ,  floors,  307 

— ,  glazed,  310 

■ — ,  hollow  building,  306 

— ,  in  wall,  308 

— ,  reinforcing  of,  307 

— ,  scored,  309 

— ,  silo,  309 

—  wall,  307 

—  — ,  lintels  for,  308 
Timber  frame,  65,  74 
Time  of  completion,  321 
Toilet,  216 

Tractor  shed,  180 
Transportation,  270 
Trench,  shelling,  152 
Triple  wall  silos,  165 
;Troughs  for  hog  houses,  117 
Trusses,  definition  of,. 6.5  . 


Trusses,  roof,  dej&nition  of,  315 
Types  of  farm  houses,  208 

farm  house  construction,  221 

farmsteads,  272 

gambrel  roof  framing,  77 

ice  houses,  183 

machine  sheds,  176 

poultry  houses,  140 

roofs,  345 

septic  tanks,  259 

silos,  163 

Ultimate  strength,  definition  of ,  312 
Units,   estimating  by  accommoda- 
tion, 327 
Upkeep  of  silos,  157 
Use  of  barn,  57 

curved  tile,  310 

stone,  310 

Used,  current,  266 
Uses,  of  steel  square,  349 
— ,  undesirable  of  barn,  51 
Utilities,  tenant  house,  238 
Utility  house,  193 

Value  of  farm  buildings,  2 
—  —  maximumi  moment,   defini- 
tion of,  315 
Vat,  dipping,  206 
Vegetable  storage,  193 
Ventilate,  failure  to,  103 
Ventilation  of  barn,  90 

hog  house,  132 

ice  house,  185 

kitchen,  267 

poultry  house,  139 

— ,  problem  of,  105 
— ,  purposes  of,  90 
— ,  tests,  103 
Ventilators,  46 
— ,  crib,  154 

Walks,  concrete,  300 
Wall,  brick  in,  305 
— ,  crib^l48     . 


INDEX 


377 


Wall,  lintels  for  tile,  308 

— ,  masonry,  68 

— ,  poultry  house,  137 

— ,  silo,  161 

— ,  smooth  silo,  156 

— ,  strong  silo,  156 

— ,  tight  silo,  156 

— ,  tile,  307 

— ,  tile  in,  308 

Wallow,  hog,  198 

Walls,  concrete,  301 

Wash  room,  216 

Waste,  lumber,  359 

Water,  323 

—  in  concrete,  292 

—  required,  amount  of,  249 

—  supply,  248,  271 
,  sources  of,  249 

—  table,  225 
Waterer,  hog,  202 
Watering  cups,  43 
Weight  of  brick,  304 

Weights,  measures  and  formulas,  351 
— ,  of  roof  coverings,  357 
— ,  —  silage,  159 

stored  materials,  355 

Wide  barn  framing,  86 
Width  of  dairy  barn,  7 

general  barn,  38 

grain  storage  buildings,  144 


Width  of  hog  house,  116 

horse  barn,  19 

Wind  loads,  361 

—  resistance  of  silos,  157 
Window,  barn,  53 

—  location  in  hog  house,  127 
on  plan,  130 

—  sash,  286 

—  size  and  kind,  131 
Windows,  poultry  house,  138 
Wood,  advantages  of,  278 

—  as  a  building  material,  278 

—  block  floors,  14 

—  finishes,  235 

—  floors,  13 

— ,  grain  in,  280 

—  hoop  silo,  165 
— ,  qualities  of,  282 

— ,  sawing  of  (lumber),  284 

—  seasoning,  285 

—  shingles,  287 

—  stave  silos,  163 
Woods,  classification  of,  279 
— ,  defects  of,  283 

— ,  disadvantages  of,  278 

— ,  other,  282 

Work,  preliminary  work  on  barns, 

66 
— ,  original,  343 
Working  drawings,  339 


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